Little Red Riding Hood and The Wolf - Roald Dahl

 

Little Red Riding Hood and The Wolf   - Roald Dahl

Roald Dahl is considered as one of the greatest storytellers of the 20^th Century. He has written novels, short stories and poems. His children’s books were made into movies. His well known works are ‘Charlie and the Chocolate Factory’, ‘The BFG’, and ‘Matilda’. Little Red Riding Hood by Roald  Dahl was published in 1982 in Revolting Rhymes. Dahl’s LRRH is a humorous, contemporary spin on the well known fairy tale. Dahl starts the retelling off by skipping the introduction to the characters and the major details because majority of his audience has most likely heard this story.

The Wolf gets hungry, goes to Grandma’s house. He eats her up in one bite but is not satisfied yet, so he decides to put on Grandma’s clothes and wait for LRRH to arrive. When she comes in, she comments on Wolf’s big ears and eyes. The Wolf responds that they will help hear and see her better. Then she asks about his furry coat. ‘That’s wrong’ the wolf says pointing out that she was supposed to ask her about his teeth. Regardless, he says, he is going to eat her up. Before he has a chance, the small girl pulls a pistol from her knickers and shoots him in the head. The narrator explains that he met Miss Riding Rood a few weeks later in the wood and was impressed by the new ‘lovely furry wolf skin coat’. This is the major turning point in how Dahl creates his own retelling.

Dahl created LRRH as a smart, tough woman to show the progression of the original story to modern day. What Dahl has done here is to manipulate the functions, so that in his version, LHHR’s role is of an active, seeker heroine. Thus, if in Grimm’s tale she was the haunted, in Dahl’s version she is the hunter, an unexpected reversal roles. In the original fairy tale, LRRH had to wait for the huntsman to come and rescue her, but in Revolting Rhymes the little girl stands on her own feet showing she needs no brave young man or a prince to save her from her foe. She becomes the heroine of the piece. Thus we could say Dahl’s LRRH as an attempt to make  the tale politically correct according to the sensibilities of today.

Robin Hood and The Monk - Robert Jamieson

 

Robin Hood and The Monk  - Robert Jamieson

Robin Hood and The Monk was first  printed  in 1806 by Robert Jamieson  in his work Popular Ballads And Songs From Tradition.

 The ballad tells about one of Robin's adventures.  Robin wanted to attend a mass in Nottingham because of his devotion to the Virgin Mary. One of his men, Much, the Millers son and one of Robin hoods men, advised him to bring at least twelve men but Robin hood decided to bring only one, Little John. Little John was Robin Hood's lieutenant. He was an excellent swordsman and archer. On their way the two had a bet in which Robin was defeated but refused to agree on the pay out. This made Little John angry and left Robin. Later Robin reached Saint Mary's in Nottingham and started to pray. A monk who was robbed by Robin Hood in the past noticed him in the church. On seeing him, the monk quickly reported Robin Hood's presence to the Sheriff.  Sheriff came to the church and arrested Robin. Little John decided to rescue Robin with Much and the other men. The Monk and his page headed to the King to inform Robin’s arrest. On the way they were caught by Little John and Much. Little John killed the Monk and Much killed the page and erased the witnesses.

The two went to meet the king in disguise as the Monk’s companion and reported the Monk’s sudden death on their journey. They gave the Monk’s letter to the King. In return the King gave them gifts and direction to bring Robin to him.

Little John gave the King’s letter to the Sheriff and told him that the Monk did not come because the King made him an abbot. They got into the prison, killed the jailer and managed to bust Robin out.

In the end, Robin felt indebted to Little John for his timely help. He offered John a position to be the leader of the group, but John refused and wanted Robin to remain as his master. On the other side, the King was enraged by the incompetence of his men but admired Little John’s loyalty.

England as a Welfare State

 

England as a Welfare State

The First World War and the Second World War shattered the economy of England. Common men were in need of aid by the government. In order to help such people, the Labour Government introduced a series of welfare schemes. Sir William Beveridge, a warm sociologist of the twentieth century, analysed the pathetic condition of poor people. He drew up an elaborate ‘cradle to the grave’ scheme to help the poor.  The Labour Government put into effect many of his recommendations.

The Family Allowance Act

This Act granted five shillings a week to the second and each successive child

Retirement Pensions

Old age pensions were granted to retired and old people to enable them to live comfortably with self-respect.

The Health Service Act

This Act gave free medical service to old people who needed surgery or specialist consultations. Doctors received an annual sum for each old person treated free of cost by him.

The National Assistance Act

This Act opened hostels for the care of pensioners, physically disabled people and tubercular patients.

Free education

A number of state schools giving free education to children were opened. Free milk was given to all the students of these schools.

These schemes were criticized by the people in the beginning because it makes people lazy. But the needy are certainly thankful to the British government.

 

The Falkland War

 

The Falkland War

Falkland Islands War, also called Falklands War, Malvinas War, or South Atlantic War, a brief undeclared war fought between Argentina and Great Britain in 1982 over control of the  Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and associated island dependencies.

Argentina had claimed sovereignty over the Falkland Islands, which lie 300 miles (480 km) east of its coast, since the early 19th century, but  Britain  seized the islands in 1833, expelling the few remaining Argentine occupants, and since then consistently rejected Argentina’s claims. In early 1982 the Argentine military Junta led by Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo Galtieri gave up on long-running negotiations with Britain and instead launched an invasion of the islands. The decision to invade was chiefly political: the junta, which was being criticized for economic mismanagement and human rights’ abuses, believed that the “recovery” of the islands would unite Argentines behind the government in a patriotic fervour. An elite invasion force trained in secrecy, but its timetable was shortened on March 19 when a dispute erupted on British-controlled  South Georgia island, where Argentine salvage workers had raised the Argentine flag, 800 miles (1,300 km) east of the Falklands. Naval forces were quickly mobilized.

Argentine troops invaded the Falklands on April 2, rapidly overcoming the small garrison of British marines at the capital Stanley (Port Stanley); they obeyed orders not to inflict any British casualties, despite losses to their own units. The next day Argentine marines seized the associated island of South Georgia. By late April Argentina had stationed more than 10,000 troops on the Falklands, although the vast majority of these were poorly trained conscripts, and they were not supplied with proper food, clothing, and shelter for the approaching winter.

As expected, the Argentine populace reacted favourably, with large crowds gathering at the Plaza de Mayo (in front of the presidential palace) to demonstrate support for the military initiative. In response to the invasion, the British government under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher declared a war zone for 200 miles (320 km) around the Falklands. The government quickly assembled a naval task force built around two aircraft carriers, the 30-year-old HMS Hermes and the new HMS Invincible light carrier, and two cruise ships pressed into service as troop carriers, the  Queen Elizabeth 2 and the Canberra. The carriers sailed from Portsmouth on April 5 and were reinforced en route. Most European powers voiced support for Great Britain, and European military advisers were withdrawn from Argentine bases. However, most Latin American governments sympathized with Argentina. A notable exception was  Chile, which maintained a state of alert against its neighbour because of a dispute over islands in the  Beagle Channel. The perceived threat from Chile prompted Argentina to keep most of its elite troops on the mainland, distant from the Falklands theatre. In addition, Argentine military planners had trusted that the  United States would remain neutral in the conflict, but, following unsuccessful mediation attempts, the United States offered full support to Great Britain, allowing its NATO ally to use its air-to-air missiles, communications equipment, aviation fuel, and other military stockpiles on British-held Ascension Island, as well as cooperating with military intelligence.

 

The Gulf War

 

The Gulf War

On 2^nd August 1990 Saddam Hussein the leader of Iraq invaded Kuwait. Kuwait is a tiny oil-producing state in the Persian Gulf. The response of the international community was swift. The United Nations demanded Iraq to withdraw the war and to impose a trade embargo. A US-led coalition force made up of nearly one million service personnel from 32 countries, including 53,457 from the United Kingdom, was assembled to expel the Iraq should diplomacy fail.

The United Nation set a deadline of 15^th January 1991 for Iraq forces to leave Kuwait. This deadline was ignored by Iraq. The air war began on 17^th January with coalition aircraft flying over 100,000 sorties. Land operations started on 24^th February and were successfully concluded in just five days. Coalition forces lost 392 dead, including 47 British soldiers. Iraq battle deaths were estimated at between 20,000 and 35,000, while over 3000 civilians were killed in coalition air strikes.

Saddam Hussein remained in power in Iraq and subsequent sanctions left the country economically crippled and internationally isolated. Later America dethroned Saddam Hussein under the pretext that he was undemocratic and in possession of dangerous weapons.

The Cold War

 

The Cold War

The Cold War was a conflict between two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union  (USSR), and their respective allies. Historians usually agree that the Cold War  began between 1947 and 1948, with the introduction of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan and ended with the  Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991.

The Cold War is, therefore, better defined as a long period of conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. The purpose of the conflict for either side was to spread their ideologies throughout the world. The goal of the US was to promote open-market capitalism, and the USSR aimed to spread one-party state communism.

Britain wasn't a main player in the Cold War, but as we will see through our timeline, its alliance with the United States made it a participant nonetheless.

We can divide Britain’s role in the Cold War into two periods: its involvement in the earlier years and in the later years of the conflict.

In the early stages, Britain participated in the creation of the Truman Doctrine, it fought against the communists in Greece, Germany, and Korea during the Korean War, and it started to work on creating its own nuclear weapons.

In the later stages of the conflict, Britain continued to support the US’ Cold War efforts in the Vietnam War. Margaret Thatcher also played a significant role in bringing about the end of the Cold War during those years.

 

 

The Second World War and its Impact on England

 

The Second World War and its Impact on England

Mussolini of Italy and Hitler of Germany were war mongers. Italy attacked Abyssinia and Germany attacked Poland. Japan attacked China. These acts of aggression developed into a Second World War. Russia sided with Germany. England declared war on Germany.

Germany was victorious in the beginning. It defeated countries like Austria, Poland, Denmark, etc. America jumped into the fray to stop the victories of Germany. Hitler advanced to attack Russia. But the cold climate of Russia proved unbearable to the German soldiers. Many German cities were destroyed. Hitler was helpless. He committed suicide.

America dropped atom bombs on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This incident brought the Second World War to an end. England and America emerged victorious. But it was a dubious victory. The U.N.O was formed in order to avert future wars.

Like the First World War, the Second World War also had a disastrous effect on England. Unemployment was on the increase. The government implemented many welfare schemes in order to distress of the people.

The First World War and its Impact on England

 

The First World War and its Impact on England

The Austrian prince was assassinated by a Serb. It provoked the First World War (1914 – 1918). All the major countries of the world had been divided into two groups. England joined with Russia and France. Germany supported Austria. Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia supported Serbia. Germany declared war on Russia and its ally France. England entered the war by helping Belgium’s resistance to the German move to pass its army through Belgium.

     The war went on for four years. Germany launched a submarine attack on England and its allies. A few American ships were attacked. In the meantime, Russia withdrew from the war as it had to tackle the Communist Revolution led by Lenin that had broken out within the country.

Germany faced some unexpected problems. Its allies, Austria and Turkey deserted Germany. The Germany navy mutinied. The German king, Kaiser William abdicated and ran away from the country. The German army was routed. The Treaty of Versailles was signed. This treaty set up the League of Nations to prevent future wars. America generously came forward to finance League of Nations. America offered to rebuild the shattered economies of the affected nations, including England.

The First World War had a destructive impact on the English economy. The unemployment problem became severe. The soldiers returning home after the war could not be given alternate jobs. The price of commodities rose up because of restrictions on imports and the fall in production. The war demoralized society. Age-old morals were shaken up.

The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr.Hyde

 

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

The Strange Case of Dr.Jekyll and Mr.Hyde is a Gothic novella written by Robert Louis Stevenson in 1886. It is about personality and transformation. Dr.Jekyll discovers a way to split his own personality between good and evil. However his alter ego, Hyde begins to take over Jekyll’s persona and finally, unable to find antidotes, so Jekyll ends his life in despaire.

            The novel begins with a lawyer named Mr. Utterson going for a walk with his friend and relative Mr. Enfield. Enfield tells the story of a horrible incident, in which a man trampled a young girl and, when apprehended, seemed remorseless but agreed to pay a large check when threatened by the police. He disappeared into this very house and revealed a check drawn from Dr. Jekyll’s bank account. The nasty man is none other than Mr. Hyde.

Mr. Utterson, is Dr. Jekyll’s lawyer. He has a copy of Dr. Jekyll’s will. The will stipulates that should Jekyll disappear or perish, Edward Hyde will inherit his estate. Mr.Utterson wants to find the mystery. When, he asks Dr.Jekyll about the will, Dr. Jekyll refuses to comment

About a year passes. A prominent politician named Sir Danvers Crew is brutally beaten to death. The murder is witnessed by a maid, who points out Edward Hyde as the culprit.Everyone tries to hunt down this evil man, but with no success. Meanwhile, Dr. Jekyll is in great health and spirits; he entertains his friends (among them one Dr. Lanyon), gives dinner parties, and attends to his religious duties.

Two months later, both Dr. Lanyon and Dr. Jekyll fall terribly ill, and claim to have irrevocably quarrelled with each other. Dr. Lanyon dies, leaving mysterious documents in Mr.Utterson’s possession, to be opened only if Dr.Jekyll dies or disappears.
Before Utterson can read the letter, he and Mr. Enfield witness a shocking event. While out on another walk, they come across Dr. Jekyll’s home. He talks with them out his window, but then he transforms, which shocks them both. It’s not until Mr. Utterson goes into Jekyll's laboratory after hearing Hyde’s words that he confirms the truth: inside, he finds Edward Hyde, dead on the floor and wearing Dr. Jekyll's clothes. He finds a letter on the body from Dr. Jekyll.

Mr. Utterson reads Dr. Lanyon's letter first. Lanyon explains that Dr. Jekyll had been having difficulties with the side effects of a drug he was working on, and that he had asked for Lanyon’s help in procuring some hard-to-come-by ingredients for it. Lanyon describes how Dr. Jekyll transformed into Edward Hyde, and how that transformation shocked him into his sickness and ultimate death. Mr. Utterson, continuing to read Dr. Jekyll’s letter, discovers that the drug he was working on was meant to test whether or not man had a dual nature—good and evil. With the drug, he could separate out his evil side, embodied by Edward Hyde. Unfortunately, the more Dr. Jekyll worked with the drug, the less predictable it was, so that he could no longer control when he turned into Edward Hyde or what Hyde would do when in control. He knew that if Hyde won, he’d cease to be Dr. Jekyll, and all of his goodness would be gone. So, he wrote the letter and took his own life.

The Humanitarian Movements

 

The Humanitarian Movements

Altruists and kind hearted people initiated movements to eradicate the evils brought by Agrarian Revolution and Industrial Revolution. It was aptly called as Humanitarian Movement.

i) Prison Reform

General Oglethorpe drew the attention of the Parliament to the horrible condition of prisoners. He also explored, how the jailors tortured prisoners to extort money from them. John Howard and Elizabeth Fry moved the government to take steps for the prevention of crimes. In 1829 Robert Peel introduced extensive police machinery to maintain law and order. As a result the incidence of crime was considerably reduced.

ii) The Anti-Slavery Reform

Buying and selling slaves was a flourishing trade during the end of the Tudor era and early decades of the Stuart regime. In 1771 about fifty thousand negroes were bought by English sailors in Africa and sold to the planters in the West Indian and American colonies to work in their estates. The suffering of the slaves was exposed first by Dr.Johnson and Horace Walpole. William Wilberforce vigorously fought for the abolition of slavery. As a result slave-trade was abolished in 1807.

iii) The Poor Laws

The Poor Law passed by Queen Elizabeth taxed the wealthy to set up a relief centre for feeding, clothing and housing the poor and the unemployed. The Speenhamland Act passed in 1795 saw to it those who were employed but paid very low wages were also given relief from the relief fund. A commission of Enquiry was set up in 1833 to study how to remedy the defects of the Poor Laws. Another commission was set up in 1905. It did a lot of useful work. It found out that the primary causes of poverty were drunkenness, disease, thriftlessness, ill-suited marriages and casual labour.

iv)Teetotalism

Hogarth and George Crulkshank addressed the problem of poverty so they started a movement called Teetotalism. They drew pictures of drunkards which touched the hearts of viewers. An enthusiastic band of volunteers called the ‘Blue Ribbon Army’ succeeded in reforming many drunkards.

v) The Salvation Army and Health care

William Booth founded the Salvation Army in 1865. He stressed the point that Christian missionaries should undertake social service. Many hospitals were established in different parts of England. Patients could remain in the hospital till they were cured. Thus many movements arose in England to help the poor and the downtrodden

The French Revolution

 The French Revolution

Causes of the French Revolution

France was ruled by despots like Louis XIV. The King was not ready to think of the welfare of his people. As a result of this indifference of the autocratic monarchs there was famine and suffering all over the country.

Course of the French Revolution

The French Revolution started with the breaking open of the State prison ‘Bastille’ on 14^th July 1789. Then, the irate mob marched into the palace and caught hold of the king and queen and all the nobles. Their heads were cut off by a specially designed machine called the guillotine. The bloody chapter was closed with Napoleon becoming Emperor in May 1804.

Napoleon followed the foot prints of his predecessors. He wanted to conquer England and other nations. But he was defeated by the English army led by Lord Wellington in the battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Impact of the French Revolution on the social life of England

In 1793, England was forced to declare war against the French Revolution. The war went for twenty years. This prolonged warfare damaged the English economy. The National Dept rose to dizzy heights, so the government collected more tax from the people. After the war the demand for coal and iron fell. As a result, the workers in these industries lost their jobs. After the war many soldiers were dismissed and sent back home.

During the war corn could not be imported into England. As a result, the price of corn rose high. Local corn merchants were benefited. After the war, corn was imported into England, so the price of corn fell in England. Poor people were benefited but agriculturalists were affected. In favour of agriculturalists Corn Law was passed in 1816. The affected poor people formed the Anti-Corn Law League. By the effort of the league, Prime Minister Rober Peel repealed the law in 1846.

The Manchester Massacre

People in England were discontent of various factors. They were called together under the leadership of a radical leader named Orator Hunt in St.Peter’s Field in 1819.  The magistrates of Manchester thoughtlessly ordered a cavalry charge on the unarmed mob. Eleven persons were killed and six hundred wounded. This event is called as the Battle of Peterloo. Finally the parliament passed the Parliamentary Reform Bill 1832.

The English Army and Navy

The Battle of Trafalgar, won by Lord Nelson during the Revolutionary War in 1805. It highlighted the greatness of the English Navy. With the victories of Lord Wellington at Waterloo in 1815 on land the army became popular.

The French Revolution influenced many English writers. They are Edmund Burke, Thomas Carlyle, Wordsworth and Charles Dickens.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION

 

THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION

Agrarian Revolution implies the great changes that took place in the agricultural methods of England in the second half of the seventeenth century.

Causes of the revolution

i) Open-field system was followed in the early days. There were no fences. It caused disputes among the farmers.

ii) The owners possessed small strips of land. The small size of the holding made scientific methods of cultivation impossible

iii) The three field system was followed in earlier ages. In this system, land was divided into three parts. Every year one of the three fields was to be out of cultivation. 

In the eighteenth century population was increasing and so more food was needed. But the yield was insufficient. Owing to the scarcity of food materials there was a rise in price.

Remarkable Changes

 To solve the problem, a number of land Enclosure Acts were passed in the reign of George II and George III. George tried to help farmers. He established a model farm at Windsor. For his genuine interest in the welfare of the farmers, people called him as ‘Farmer George’.

 Charles Townshend replaced the three field system by the four-field rotation system. In this system, crops were grown in rotation in the order of turnips, barley, cloves and rye-grass and wheat. This system helped the farmers in all the ways. As Townshend stressed the usefulness of turnip, farmers called him as ‘Turnip Townshend’.

Jethro Tull was the inventor of a drill for sowing seeds. Tull’s drill made channels, sowed seeds into them and covered them at the same time. Arthur Young’s books taught innovative agricultural methods. He also set up a Board of Agricultural to give practical lessons in farming technology to farmers

Robert Bakewell of Leicestershire was the first to turn his attention to the production of meat. Through his experiment he succeeded in producing a new breed of sheep which fattened quickly and weighted heavy.  Other contributors in this field were George Culley, Charles Colling and John Ellman.

The harm done by the Agrarian Revolution was that the enclosure of fields resulted in the eviction of small farmers. They were forced sell their small strips to the wealthy land lords. There was an exodus of small owners into cities to get jobs.

The Importance of Being Earnest – Oscar Wilde

 

The Importance of Being Earnest – Oscar Wilde

The play "The Importance of Being Earnest" is written by Oscar Wilde. Oscar Wilde is one of the most prominent short story writers, a novelist, and a famous dramatist in the Victorian age. This short comedy play is written in 1895. This is one of the most prominent plays by Oscar Wilde. It has three acts. The play criticizes the Victorian moral and social values. This play revolves around the two main characters named Jack (Earnest) and Algernon.

Jack Worthing  is a pillar of the community in Hertfordshire. He is guardian to  Cecily Cardew, the pretty, eighteen-year-old granddaughter of the late Thomas Cardew, who found and adopted Jack when he was a baby. In Hertfordshire, Jack has responsibilities: he is a major landowner and justice of the peace, with tenants, farmers, and a number of servants and other employees all dependent on him. To escape from this atmosphere of restraint he invents an imaginary brother named Ernest. To lead a scandalous life in pursuit of pleasure, Jack allows him to disappear in the name of Ernest for days in London

In London, Jack falls in love with Gwendolen Fairfax. Gwendolen is the cousin of Jack’s friend Algernon and the daughter of Lady Bracknell. When Jack explains that he plans to propose marriage to Gwendolen. Algernon shows his refusal to sanction this marriage until the solution of Cecily’s mystery. Algernon has knowledge of Cecily due to an inscription on the cigarette case of Worthing. Worthing reveals the truth about him to Algernon. Gwendolen loves Jack particularly with his name Ernest of which she is very fond. Lady Bracknell does not approve of Jack due to his unknown parentage.

Jack returns to his country and informs Dr.Chasuble that his brother Ernest has died of severe chill. He also requests Chasuable to re-christen him that evening. At the same time Cecily informs them that Ernest has just come there. Algernon introduces himself as Ernest to the people. Jack is shocked at the trick played by Algernon. Algernon loves Cecily, whose desire is to love a man with the name of Ernest.

Confusion arises when Gwendolen arrives there. She tells Cecily that she loves Ernest and is shocked to learn that Cecily also loves him. The two ladies spar at each other. Later the two ladies realize that a trick has been played upon them by the two men.Meanwhile, both Jack and Algernon want their names to be Ernest. For this purpose, they consort with Dr. Chasuble.  Lady Bracknell visits the Manor House and urgesGwendolen to return home with her. She also disapproves of Algernon’s love for Cecily. When Jack says that Cecily is in possession of a fabulous fortune, Lady Bracknell changes her mind and allows Algernon to love Cecily.

The turning point in ‘The importance of Being Earnest summary’ came with Miss Prism. Miss Prism is the tutor of Cecily.  Lady Bracknell  identifies  Miss Prism as the former governess of her sister who left her sister’s baby in a handbag and forgetfully left it in a cloak room. The child thus lost is Jack. Thus Jack is discovered to be Lady Bracknell’s nephew and Algernon’s elder brother.

The problem caused by Cecily and Gwendolen’s infatuation with the name Ernest is still unresolved. Fortunately Jack finds out from an old military directory that his father’s Christian name was Ernest, so the sons can freely call themselves Ernest now. All the problems now being solved, the lovers Cecily and Algernon, Gwendolen and Jack, and Miss Prism and Dr.Chasuble are paired off. Jack puns on the words Ernest-Earnest that he has for the first time in his life realized the need for being earnest. He is at last, Ernest and earnest. The play ends with happy note.

 

 

The Industrial Revolution

 

The Industrial Revolution

During the second half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century British industry underwent great changes. This process is called Industrial Revolution. Before the Industrial Revolution, goods were produced in limited qualities by human hands in the houses of the workers, but after the Revolution goods were produced in large quantities by machines in factories.

The following are reasons why the Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain earlier than in other European countries. i) the  availability of capital for starting necessary infrastructural facilities, ii) the absence of war and the existences of peace in internal matters, iii) the availability of cheap reap raw materials such as cotton and coal in England, iv) the availability of labourers at a cheap rate to work in factories, v) the network of England’s colonies which supplied raw materials cheaply to England.

John Kay invented the flying shuttle in 1733. This mechanical device increased the speed at which the weavers of cloth could work. In 1764 a carpenter named James Hargreaves made the spinning-jenny, which speeded up the making of yarn. In 1769, Richard Arkwright’s ‘spinning frame’ worked by water-power was an improvement of jenny. In 1779 Samuel Crompton combined the merits of both Hargreaves’s and Arkwright’s machines.  The power – loom made by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 helped to increase the speed of weaving.

The great development in the iron and coal industry took place in places like South Wales, South Yorkshire and Tyneside regions where coal and iron were found together. In 1705 Newcomen made a steam engine to pump water out of coal mines. In 1763, James Watt perfected this steam engine.

The Revolution took place in means of transport also to transport goods to cities and seaports. Telford made many miles of good roads and many large towns were reached by coaches. In 1815 Macadam taught the art of road draining and perfected the surface of the road. By 1840 there were 22,000 miles of good turnpike roads in England with nearly 8,000 tollgates.

Canalization of rivers was undertaken on a large scale in the eighteenth century. Bridgewater and Brindley constructed many canals. Canals were the principal means of transport for coal, iron and finished products. George Stephenson invented the first locomotive, and the first railway line between Stockton and Darlington was opened in 1825. Since that time there has been remarkable progress in all matters connected with ocean navigation.

The Industrial Revolution had good as well as bad results. Many large cities sprang up in different parts of England. Manchester, Lancashire and Sheffield were such new towns. England became the workshop of the world. The people clustered together in these smoky towns where lack of proper sanitation caused many kinds of diseases. Many Reform Bills were passed later to correct the harm done by the Industrial Revolution.

Coffee-Houses and its significance

 

Coffee-Houses and its significance

Coffee drinking was common among the Arabians in the end of the fifteenth century. It spread to England and became popular in the seventeenth century. In reign of Queen Anne, the coffee-house was the centre of social life in the city. In London there were more than five hundred coffee-houses. The unique feature of these coffee houses was their variety. There were different coffee-houses frequented by different sections of society.

Politicians’ Coffee-Houses

People of different political creeds visited different coffee-houses. Tories went to Cowa Tree Chocolate House and Whigs to St.James’s Coffee House. Naturally, political issues were discussed with extraordinary heat and energy.

Will’s Coffee House

Will’s coffee-house was the celebrated one among the learned literary men. It was situated between Covent Garden and Bow Street. John Dryden visited the coffee house often. Here discussed the literary matters. The seat near the fireside was reserved for Dryden in winter. In summer he went with his friends to the balcony.

Button’s coffee-House

Button’s Coffee-House was like a rival to Will’s Coffee-House. It was situated near Convent Garden. It was founded by Mr.Button, one of the old servants of Joseph Addison. It was visited by literary luminaries such as Dryden, Pope, Addison, Steele etc.

Doctors’ and Clergy’s Coffee Houses

Doctor’s favourite coffee-house was Garraway. It was founded by Thomas Garway. Dr.John Radcliffe the most famous doctor of Anne’s age, chose to visit this coffee house. Patients flocked here to seek his advice. The coffee house was situated in Change Alley, Cornhill.

Clergymen’s favourite coffee- house was Truby’s coffee house. There were separate coffee-houses for Roman Catholics, Puritans and Jews. Swearing was banned in the coffee-houses.

Thus coffee houses served different people in different ways in Anne’s England. The greatest good that the coffee house did was that, it kept people away from drinking alcohol. The coffee-houses were closed down twice – during Danby’s time and later during the French Revolution. The heated discussions of political problems could not be tolerated and so coffee houses were closed temporarily during these periods.

The Darkling Thrush - Thomas Hardy

 

 

The Darkling Thrush  - Thomas Hardy

Thomas Hardy an English poet and novelist of 19^th century is the author of poem ‘The Darkling Thrush’. The poem describes a desolate landscape which is reflective of the poet’s own feeling of desolation and emptiness. It is written in December 1900. It reflects on the end of the 19^th century. The poem has two parts. The first part deals with the bleakness of nature in winter which inflects the poet who is looking on the scene. In the second part of the poem, the poet talks about the shrill song of the thrush. It symbolizes the indestructible energy of nature.

At the beginning, the poet is leaning on a wooden gate and surveying the surrounding landscape blighted by winter. The sun is setting. The atmosphere looks very bleak. The year has drawn to a close. Hardy uses certain apt images to describe the dismal condition of the time. He says that the year had died. He looks upon the dark clouds in the sky as a tomb containing the dead body of the year. The day is as pale as a ghost. The day is also described as the scum or dregs of the year. The howling wind is regarded as lamentation for the year that has died. Winter has paralysed nature. Hardy observes stagnation everywhere. He says that the cycle of birth and death has stopped. Nature seems to be at standstill. He compares nature to a lyre whose strings are broken with the result that no music is produced.

Hardy is in low spirits. He is ‘fervourless’. The dismal landscape around him reflects his inner emptiness. The poet is lost in sad thoughts. Suddenly the silence is broken by the melodies song of a thrush. The thrush is old. Its feathers have been damaged by a violent storm. Still, the thrush is not disheartened. It continues to pour out its song in the dark night. The poet wonders what could be the motivation or source of the bird’s gaiety. He says that the thrush is hopeful of a future. It is not depressed by the paralyzing effect of winter. It has ‘a blessed hope’ that a better time will be born soon. The bird has this cheerful hope but the poet is depressed.

Dover Beach – Matthew Arnold

 

Dover Beach – Matthew Arnold

Matthew Arnold, a Victorian poet as well a critic. He is the author of the poem ‘Dover Beach’. It was published in 1867. It is in the form of dramatic monologue, lamenting the loss of religious faith during the Victorian age. During the age because of the advancement of science, people lost their faith in religion. In this poem ‘Dover Beach’ Arnold says that true love is the only remedy for all problems. The ‘love’ addressed in the poem is Arnold’s newly married wife Frances Lucy Wightman with whom he visited Dover.

The Poet is the speaker, he is in his room. He begins to describe a calm and quiet sea out in the English Channel. The place is Dover Beach which is in a short distance from the French Coast. The poet asks his beloved to come to the window to watch the beautiful scene. The waves are ebbing and flowing. This to and fro movement produces crashing noise. The poet says that there is something sad about this sound. He feels that sadness is eternal. Even Sophocles, an ancient Greek tragedian might have heard this sound on the Aegean Sea. It reminded him of the emotions of ‘human misery’ and how they ‘ebb and flow’.

In this poem Arnold compares religion to sea. Once people had a strong faith but it dried up in the Victorian age because of the advancement of science. It is symbolically conveyed by the poet through the image of the sea withdrawing from the shore.

In the end of the poem, Arnold stresses the importance of love. Man had nothing to sustain him except woman’s love. He ends the poem with the cynical reflection that absence of religious enlightenment. People behave blindly and self – destructively like soldiers fighting in the dark and killing their own comrades by mistake. There is misunderstanding everywhere only sincere love can console distraught men and women.

Restoration England

 

Restoration England

By the term Restoration England, we mean England of the period between 1660 and 1688. All the practices which were suppressed during the Puritan regime were restored after Charles II was brought back of England as its king. Political monarchy, Parliament and Law were all brought back to their former status.

After the death of Oliver Cromwell there was a confusion and chaos in England. Richard Cromwell came to power. He was incompetent. Unable to bear pressures so he retired from politics. The conventional Parliament was headed by General Monk. He sensed the growing discontentment of the people. He planned to bring Charles II to the English throne. Charles II accepted the Monk’s invitation to be the king of England.

The restoration of Charles II marked the restoration of Parliamentary democracy. The powers of Parliament were considerably weakened during the commonwealth period. During the restoration period the House of Lords was restored. The House of Commons was more powerful than the House of Lords.

The Convention Parliament (1660 - 61) placed Charles II on the throne. It was summoned without a royal writ. It passed many important Acts. The parliament was dissolved in 1661 and a new parliament was elected and continued for 18years. It was called Cavalier Parliament. During Charles II’s reign, divisions arose on religious grounds. Charles II was a staunch Catholic. After his death, his brother James ascended the throne.

The Puritan age was noted for its excessive restraint. The table turned in the opposite extreme in the Restoration period. Restraint was replaced by the utter abandon in the new age. All theatres were closed down in the Puritan age as they were believed to breed immortality. Theatres were re-opened in the Restoration age, with major changes. The Restoration theatre was roofed in. Plays were staged at night in candle light. Another major change was that women’s roles were played by actresses and not by boys.

Two great national calamities of the Restoration period were the Plague and the Great Fire. The plague of 1665 carried away nearly one-fifth of the London population. The Great fire of 1666 raged for five long days, destroying all the churches and other buildings of the city. The Great fire was in a sense a blessing in disguise because the reconstruction of the city on modern lines was possible after this calamity. The reconstruction of London was accomplished in a comparatively short period of four or five years.

 

God’s Grandeur - Gerard Manley Hopkins

 God’s Grandeur   - Gerard Manley Hopkins

 

Gerard Manley Hopkins is one of the most important poets of the Victorian era. He was also a Jesuit priest. He wrote ‘God’s Grandeur’ in 1877. It is an Italian sonnet. It contains fourteen lines divided into an octave and a sestet. The title word ‘grandeur’ from the French, means greatness, grandness. The poem explores the relationship between God and the world of nature and how the divine is infused in things and refreshes despite the efforts of humans to ruin the whole show.

 

 In the first stanza, the poet says that God’s grandeur is revealed to us in different ways. In one way it flames out with sudden brilliance, as when a silver foil is shaken and it gives out glints of light. Another way is that God’s glory manifests itself slowly over a period of time, so when the oil crushed from olives slowly oozes out and gathers into a thick pool. The poet then continues to say that it has been so in the past and it continues to be so in the present that people do not care for the authority of God. The reason, for people’s inattentiveness is that they have become fatalistic to their misfortune. Hopkins gives more reasons behind it. He says men have now become too much materialistic and business minded. Like a galloping horse, generations have moved onward, have worked hard to threshold an era of industrialization and commercialization. The poet further says that, the filth and dirt of human selfishness have spoilt God’s grandeur and thus have poisoned world of Nature. Men are so much busy at their work that they cannot even think about this decay for a little while. They are confined to their narrow circle of routine life and thus accepted their fate. Man has become quite indifferent to the loss of the beauty of the Nature and also his own natural beauty. As a result he has become too hard, too insensitive and too crude.

      In the second stanza, the poet says that inspite of all the oddities a bright dawn can be expected. Poet has faith in God and so he is optimistic; he thinks that the Holy Ghost is perpetually hovering and brooding over the earth and the mankind as a bird broods over an egg and sustains the life in it with its warmth. This beautiful imagery of the mother-bird brooding over its egg conveys to us a sense of living relationship. The poet expects that Nature can never be exhausted. Though people have become rude and indifferent to the Nature but Nature never betrays the man. She is too benevolent to give her all and thus become inexhausted. It is a perennial source of freshness with which the earth is renewed every time when spring comes; dark night and gloomy days are replaced by the new light of the sun of the horizon.

 

My Last Duchess - Robert Browning

 

My Last Duchess    - Robert Browning

‘My Last Duchess’ is written by Robert Browning. He is a Victorian poet. He wrote the poem in 1842. It is written in the form of dramatic monologue. The poem depicts the condition of women in the Victorian age. Wives were expected to meekly submit to their husbands, however brutish they might be. In this poem, Ferrara is such a brutal husband, who murdered his wife mercilessly for her indiscriminate smile.

The Duke of Ferrara is the speaker of the poem. He addresses the ambassador whose master’s daughter he is planning to marry. He informs the ambassador that he murdered his wife because she was flirtatious. The ambassador remains a passive listener. He knows that it is dangerous to oppose Ferrara.  Ferrara shows the ambassador the picture of his wife’s face. It is painted on the wall by the famous painter Fra’Pandolf. To draw the Duchess’s facial expressions, Fra’Pandolf spent a whole day. The Duchess in the picture is glancing. There is a touch of joy on her face.

Ferrara says that his wife could be easily pleased or impressed. All objects gave her equal pleasure. The costly jewel gifted to her by her husband and the cherry given to her by some foolish servant - both were regarded as equal by the Duchess. According to him, the Duchess had no discrimination.

Ferrara considers it beneath his dignity to instruct her, what she should or should not do. She smiled when he passed by her. She did the same when other men passed by her. Ferrara was not able to tolerate it, so he had murdered. This is the only way he could think of to stop her smiling indiscriminately.

Ferrara says that he will not openly demand any dowry but that he expects the ambassador’s master’s daughter to bring him much dowry. Before leaving the hall the Duke shows the ambassador the sculpture of Neptune, the sea-god taming the powerful sea-horse. What Ferrara indirectly conveys is that he will tame his future wife also as Neptune tamed the sea-horse.

Thus the poem depicts the harsh reality of a controlling marriage and a dominating husband who enjoys tyrannical power.

 

Ulysses - Alfred Lord Tennyson

 

Ulysses   - Alfred Lord Tennyson

Alfred Lord Tennyson is the author of the poem ‘Ulysses’. He wrote the poem in 1833. It is written in the form of a dramatic monologue spoken by Ulysses. The character appears in Homer’s Greek epic ‘The Odyssey’ and Dante’s Italian epic ‘The Inferno’. Tennyson wrote this poem after the unexpected death of his friend Arthur Henry Hallam. In this poem, the author tells us the tale of Ulysses who sets out for a final voyage before his death.

Ulysses has just returned from the Trojan War. Ulysses is old but is still full of wanderlust. Having led an adventurous life for many years, he finds that he has to remain idle in Ithaca. He complains that life in Ithaca is very dull. His wife is aged. There is no scope for romance at home and adventure in the country. The people of Ithaca are sluggish and do not understand his greatness as a leader. He wants to go on a voyage again so that he can enjoy the richness of life till the last moment of his life.

 Ulysses wants to hand over the kingdom to his son Telemachus. He says that his and his son’s talents are quite different. Ulysses has wandered all over the world and had many rich experiences. He has observed a variety of cultures and governments. He was respected wherever he went. In spite of his extensive travelling, he does not want to take rest. He has an unquenchable thirst for wandering and adventure. He wants to have more and more experiences. Telemachus is an administrator par excellence. He is immensely patient and can civilize the rugged Ithacans by degrees. He can win over the people by exhibiting love and concern for them.

Ulysses explains his plan to his brave followers. He tells them frankly that his purpose is to take them to the very end of the western horizon where the stars are supposed to bathe. He also wants to go to the Happy Isles, the abode of the souls of the illustrious dead. He hopes to meet there the brave Achilles who got killed in the Trojan War. Ulysses points to the mariner that in the process of discovering these new lands they may meet their death. Ulysses’ followers are as brave as he is. None of them are discouraged by the prospect of death.

All of them have the same mind set. Though they are weakened by time and fate, they are still mentally strong to work hard and find what they searched for. They are determined not to yield to despair.

A Patch of Land - C.Subramania Bharati

 

 A Patch of Land     - C.Subramania Bharati

C.Subramania Bharati is the author of the poem ‘A Patch of Land’. He was born on 11^th December 1882 at Ettayapuram in Tamilnadu and died on 11^th September 1921 in Chennai. He was a poet, journalist, social reformer and polyglot. He is bestowed the title "Mahakavi Bharathi" for his excellence in poetry. He was a pioneer of modern Tamil poetry and is considered one of the greatest Tamil literary figures of all time. His well known works are ‘Kannan Pattu’, ‘Panchali Sapatham’, ‘Kuyil Pattu’. The poem ‘A Patch of Land’ depicts the desire of the poet for a peaceful, beautiful and natural atmosphere in which he wants to live.

The poet starts the poem by requesting the Goddess Parashakti, the goddess of power to grant him a patch of land. In Tamil text, ‘A Patch of land’ is called ‘Kanni nilam i.e.1.32acres. In the midst of the land, he desires to have a bungalow with the decorative pillars. He wishes to have balconies in that house and to be painted in white. The white color will give the poet peace of mind. In the land, nearby the well, he dreams to have ten to twelve coconut trees with long fronds and tender nuts.

The wish list of the poet continues. Being the lover of nature, he wants to sit and watch the moonlight entering through the groves like a shining pearl. He also wants to listen to the songs of the cuckoos while there is a gentle breeze. The gentle breeze will bring pleasure to his soul. He further appeals to the Supreme power to provide him a young woman with chastity as his life partner. He wants to share the joyous moment with her. Finally the poet appeals to the Supreme power to protect him and his wife for the sake of his powerful poetry. He assures to Parashakti that he is ready to submit his poetic abilities to save this earth. He concludes the poem with a note of prayer to protect the whole world. From this poem we can understand the poet’s love towards nature and the well being of others.

 

All For Love - John Dryden

 

All For Love  - John Dryden

The main source of All For Love is borrowed from Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra and another sources such as Daniel’s Tragedies of Cleopatra and Thomas May’s The Tragedies of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. The play has been entitled by Dryden All For Love, and its sub title, The World Well Lost. It is a tragedy written in blank verse

In a sentence, the theme of All For Love  is the conflict between love and honour. The play is a demonstration of some heroic virtues- love, valour and honour. Everything is for love, the lovers are prepared to lose the whole world for the sake of love, and at last they do lose it for love.

The play begins with Serapion a priest of Isis, discussing the fact that there have been many dark omens manifesting in the natural world recently. Alexas, Cleopatra's eunuch, suggests that this is nonsense, and warns that Cleopatra's relationship with Antony, the Roman general, is on the rocks.

When Ventidius, one of Antony's former generals, comes to fetch him, Serapion throws a feast in honor of Antony's birthday. Ventidius wants to lure Antony back to Rome and tells the mournful Antony that there is a legion waiting to fight with him in Syria, but only if he is willing to leave Cleopatra behind and move on. Antony is not taking any visitors, as he is trying to will himself to stop loving Cleopatra, but Ventidius does not take no for an answer and eventually convinces Antony to leave Cleopatra and join the Romans.

Cleopatra is inconsolable when she learns that Antony is leaving her. She sends Alexas to bring Antony a bracelet on her behalf. When he delivers the bracelet, Antony has trouble fastening it, and Alexas tells him that Cleopatra ought to do it. Antony goes to Cleopatra and when he sees her in person, is dissuaded from leaving Egypt. She tells him that she refused an offer from Octavius, which proves her love for him.

Ventidius tries yet again to get Antony to leave Egypt. He brings both Antony's old friend, Dolabella, as well as Antony's wife, Octavia, and daughters, to convince him to come back to Rome. Antony previously banished Dolabella for seeming to fall in love with Cleopatra, but Antony has forgiven him upon his return. Octavia manages to convince Antony to return to Rome, and Octavia and Cleopatra have a confrontation.

Antony plans to leave Egypt and sends Dolabella to deliver the news to Cleopatra, as he believes that Dolabella will be best suited to communicate his regret at having to leave. When Dolabella goes to Cleopatra, Cleopatra and Alexas make a plan to make Antony jealous: Cleopatra will attempt to seduce Dolabella, which will lure Antony back to her.

When Cleopatra attempts to seduce Dolabella, she has second thoughts and does not pursue anything. However, Ventidius and Octavia see the interaction and tell Antony that Dolabella is having an affair with the Egyptian queen. Antony is heartbroken, but still wants to believe the best of Cleopatra, which offends Octavia, who denounces him once and for all, and leaves him. Dolabella and Cleopatra try and tell Antony that there was no affair, but he does not believe them.

In the final act, Antony leads his troops in battle against Caesar, but instead of fight the Romans, they greet them as friends and turn against Egypt. Hearing of Egypt's doom, Cleopatra attempts to flee, leaving Alexas behind. In order to save his own life, Alexas tells Antony that Cleopatra killed herself. Antony is heartbroken, and he and Ventidius kill themselves. Just as Antony is dying, Cleopatra rushes on, having heard of Alexas' lie. After Antony dies in her arms, Cleopatra asks Charmion and Iras, her attendants, to bring her aspics (small snakes), so that she can get bitten by them and die. She and her two attendants die from snake bites.