Trade Unionism in England

 

Trade Unionism in England

Trade unionism in England was the natural outcome of industrialism in that country. Before Industrial Revolution, workers had little chance to meet to discuss their problems. But after Industrial Revolution, many factories were established in Industrial town. It gave them opportunities to meet and to talk about their grievances. Trade unionism is defined as, association of workers formed with the purpose of improving the conditions under which work is carried on.

In the eighteenth century there were many secret trade unions in England. The ruling classes looked upon them with suspicion and disfavor. In 1799 and 1800 Combination Laws were passed by which trade unions were made illegal. Francis Place, a master-tailor took efforts for the welfare of the workers. As a result, in 1824, the House of Commons appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Joseph Hume. It supported the working class.

In the next few years, small local trade unions were combined. Thus the Grand Union of the United Kingdom and the National Association for the Protection of Labour came into existence. In 1834, the Grand Union of the United Kingdom was formed with around one million members. It was popular in the beginning, as years went by, it failed. A revival took place in 1843. In 1851 a number of unions in the engineering industry united to form the Amalgamated Society of engineers. The Trade Union Act was passed in the year 1871. According to the act, the unions were compelled to render to the union exact accounts of all the money received by them.

During the sixties and seventies trade unionism was popular only among the skilled workers. A match workers’ strike was organized by Annie Besant in 1888 to get concessions from their employers. In 1889, the union of gas workers was formed and a substantial reduction in their hours of work followed. The first railway was formed in 1871. In 1911 a strike occurred and it was called off only when a promise was that a Royal Commission would be constituted to consider the grievances of the men. The Act of 1921 made it obligatory that the railway service should be represented by the railway trade unions.

Even white-collared employees such as medical men, traders, lawyers, journalists, bank clerks and actors have their respective unions to fight for their rights and privileges. It must be stated that the Trade Union movement has done much to improve the lot in life of the workers. It is now necessary to see that Trade Union movement does not become harmful.

 

The World Wars and Social Security

 

The World Wars and Social Security

The first half of the twentieth century was a period of great progress because of the development of science and technology. But this progress was matched by disasters of the highest magnitude. The First World War started in the year 1914, paralyzed the normal life of people all over the world. By the effort of Woodrow Wilson, President of U.S.A, the War came to an end in 1918. In 1936, the Second World War started and ended in 1945. Only then, the United Nations Organization was established. It played a prominent role to prevent large-scale war on several occasions.

Both these wars brought about great changes both in England and abroad. One of the effects of the First World War was the social leveling up. After the war the class felling was not so acute as it was before. The wealthy upper class could no longer enjoy all their luxuries as the State imposed on them many taxes. Slowly they lost the social and political leadership which they had been enjoying for generations. The mass production of clothes helped for social leveling. It enabled the working man’s wife to follow the fashions of the ladies of rank. The educational institutions played an effective role in realizing the social goal of a classless society.

The Second World War is described as a war of liberation, because it brought centuries old colonial rule to an end and paved the way for many nations to become independent. Thus the age old imperialism was gone and a new era of democracy was ushered in. An earnest attempt was made by the successive Government to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor to the minimum. Coal, gas wireless and air transport were brought under the State control. The State control was exercised in the agricultural methods and marketing in the establishment of factories, and the supply of raw materials.

Soon after the Second World War a general election was held in 1945 and the Labour Party with Clement Attlee as Prime Minister came into power. The Labour Government passed a number of Acts to ensure social security and welfare for the majority of people of the country. The Family Allowance Act helped the families to get allowance for their children of school-going age. In 1946, the National Insurance Act was passed according to which the contributions by workers and employers were raised. The National Health Service Act gave free medical service to old people. This system was a boon to the needy people to improve their health. The National Assistant Act was passed for the welfare of pensioners, physically disabled and patients.

In 1950, the Conservative Governments came to power. They followed the policy inaugurated by the Labour Government. Under the leadership of Anthony Eden, the government set up the Slum Clearance Scheme. Afterwards the Macmillan Ministry set up the Housing Corporation. Thus the way was prepared for England to become a welfare state.

 

The Victorian Age

 

The Victorian Age

Queen Victoria ruled England for sixty-four years (1837 -1901). Her reign witnessed remarkable changes in many fields. She was affectionately called ‘Grand Mamma’ by the people. Her rule was disturbed by the Chartist movement or Chartism. It shows the difference between the haves and the have-nots. Under the leadership of Feargus O’Connor, they drew up a Charter called the People’s Charter. It contained six demands. It was presented to Parliament. It was so shocking to Whigs as well as Tories. The demand was turned down by the Parliament.

After Napoleonic War, working classes suffered a lot. To eradicate it, the first Anti-Corn Law League was founded in 1839. Prompted by humanitarian consideration, the Prime Minister Robert Peel repealed the Corn law in 1846.

The Great Exhibition of 1851, was a clear evidence to see artistic works and raw materials gathered from every corner of the empire and the world. Henry Bessemer’s process which made possible the mass production of steel and Michael Faraday’s discoveries of electrical power added much to the material prosperity of the period. The use of chloroform in medical practice by Simpson in 1847 and the anti-septic surgery developed by Joseph Lister came as great relief to the suffering humanity. In 1859, Charles Darwin, the great scientist of the day published ‘The Origin of Species’. It brought forth a rather shocking theory that man and all other species of life had evolved from a common source. It was a bolt from the blue and clashed with the Biblical account of the creation of man and in turn led to a bitter battle of words between churchmen and scientist.

Along with these social and scientific advancement there was going on a religious movement similar to the Methodist movement, started by the Wesley brothers in the previous century. This was the Oxford movement otherwise known as the Tractarian Movement started by John Henry Newman and a few other Oxford scholars in 1833.

The Crimean War came to an end with the treaty of Paris in 1856. On 1^st January 1877, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India. There was a marvelous output of literature in the Victorian age. Alfred Tennyson became the Poet Laureate in 1850. Robert Browning, famous for his dramatic monologues was his nearest rival. The other poets of the period were, Matthew Arnold, Swinburne, Dante Gabriel, Rossetti, his sister Christina Rossetti, Fitzgerald, William Morris, Arthur Clough. Great among the prose writers were, Carlyle, Macaulay, Ruskin, Newman and many others. As far as the novel was concerned it was the age of giants. Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackaray, George Eliot and many others.

The latter half of Queen Victoria’s reign was noted for many reforms in the field of both politics and education. The Reform Act of 1867 and 1884 extended the right of vote to larger and larger sections of society. At any rate, speaking on the whole, the Victorian Age was a period of peace and prosperity.

 

COLONIAL EXPANSION

 

COLONIAL EXPANSION

In the end of the 16^th century, for various reasons many people left England. After the Wars of the Roses wealth was increasing and it served as an incentive for overseas enterprise. Colonies were founded in America and in the West Indian Islands because of the hard work of the adventurers. Important trade centres  were established in South Africa and India. Thus by the early decades of the decades of the 18^th century, there were thirteen colonies on the east coast of America, between Nova Scotia in the north and Florida in the south. These colonies were of three groups, namely New England colonies, the Middle Colonies and the Southern colonies.

In the early Elizabethan period, Sir Walter Raleigh made several attempts to establish colonies. His first settlement was on Roanoke island off the coast of North Carolina. It was named Virginia to honor Queen Elizabeth.. Later, Raleigh sold his rights to the Plymouth company and the London company. In 1607, the London company under the leadership of Captain John Smith made the first  permanent settlement. They called it as Jamestown in honor of James I. The colonist needed more labour for the development of their colony and it was solved by purchasing the negro slaves.

In 1620, a group of Puritans from Scotland migrated to America and establish a religious society there. These ‘Pilgrim Fathers’ set out from Plymouth harbor in England in a ship called the Mayflower and landed near Cape Cod. That place was named New Plymouth to commemorate the English port. In 1629,  the Puritans obtained a Charter from Charles I. Two more colonies were founded in New England in the early part of the 17^th century. In 1636, Roger Williams with his followers founded a small settlement called Providence. Thomas Hooker another religious leader settled at a place called New Haven and the colony was named Connecticut. Similarly, another colony called New Hampshire was formed .

In 1632, Charles I granted  a block of land to Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, on the Potomac River. Thus in 1634, was founded the Maryland colony, the first Roman Catholic settlement in America.

The Dutch had formed the settlement-called a settlement of New Amsterdam near the mouth of the Hudson River. During the Dutch war in 1664, this area passed into the hands of the British and was named New York in honor of the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II, who later became James II. In 1681 Charles II gave William Penn, a Quaker, a large tract of land west of the Delaware River. This was named Pennsylvannia. Penn leased land in the south and the east , which became the colony of Delaware and New Jersey.In 1663, Charles II granted to eight noblemen called ‘Proprietors’ all the territory south of Virginia. It is called Carolina. In 1670, the city of Charleston was founded and later it was divided into two colonies, North and South Carolina.

By the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, England became the possessor of territories in all parts of the world.

The East India Company

 

The East India Company

Queen Elizabeth was much interested in starting a network of colonies in different parts of the world. As part of her plan she granted a Royal Charter to the East India Company to establish trade links with India. The company was started with the capital of 70,000 dollars contributed by 125 shareholders.

In 1640, the East India Company bought some land in the northern part of Chennai from the Raja of Chandragiri. Francis Day constructed a fort there called Fort St. George. This was the origin of the Presidency of Madras.

In 1661, the East India Company bought the marshy land in Bombay for an annual rent of just ten pounds. Then, the Governor General Aungler converted the marshy land into a beautiful town with a natural harbor. Many trading companies were shifted to Bombay. This was the beginning of the Presidency of Bombay.

In 1690, the famous British Agent Job Charnock built a fort at Calcutta. It was called Fort William. Many factories were shifted to this place. This was the beginning of the Presidency of Bengal. Thus the company gained a foothold in three key centres in India.

The company turned its attention to the goal of ruling India. The instability consequent on the collapse of the Mugal Empire gave opportunities to the East India company to attain its goal. In the south India, Dupleix, the French and Robert Clive, the Englishman had a competition to gain control over Hyderabad and Karnataka. Clive gained the control. By winning the battle of Plassey, Clive captured Bengal. He became the first Governor of Bengal. The company won the Maratha wars and destroyed Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan. Similarly, the Sikh leaders were destroyed by the company.

To streamline the irregularities of the East India Company, the Governor of Bengal was made Governor General. The company’s mismanagement was still rampant, so Queen Victoria abolished the powers of the East India Company. The government of India was taken over by the Queen herself. This brought the rule of the East India company in India to a close.

The company was in India for 258 years. It changed the life style of Indians. All walks of life were Westernized.  Macaulay made English the medium of instruction in Indian colleges and universities. Governor General  William Bentinck abolished the barbarous practice of Sati. Raja Ram Mohan Roy assisted the same. The British government brought about revolutionary changes such as the use of the railways, the post and telegraph and other means of communication. At the same time valuable Indian literary works such as the ‘Bhagavad Gita and Thirukural’ attracted foreign scholars. They were translated into English.

The Elizabethan Theatre

 

The Elizabethan Theatre

Elizabethan drama was the dominant art form that flourished during and a little after the reign of Elizabeth I, who was Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. 

The Elizabethan Theatre was a booming business. People loved the theatre. The Elizabethan plays and theatres were so popular. Huge amounts of money could be made. The inn-keepers increased their profits by allowing plays to be shown on temporary stages erected in the yards of their inns. Soon purpose-built playhouses and great open theatres were being constructed. The history of the Elizabethan Theatre started in 1576.

In 1576, James Burbage obtains lease and permission to build ‘The Theatre’ in London. Another open air amphitheatre called ‘The Curtain’ opened in 1577. In 1587, Surrey opened an amphitheatre called ‘The Rose’. In 1593, theatres were closed due to the Plague. In 1599, ‘The Globe’ was opened on Bankside.

The Globe was very popular in the Elizabethan age. Shakespeare wrote most of his plays for this theatre. This theatre was a wooden structure. It was hexagonal outside and round within. The stage was divided into four parts. The front stage projected far into the auditorium. This part of the stage served as a street or battlefield or garden. It was open to the sky. The back stage was the part behind the pillars. It served as a large room, a palace hall, an office or a tavern as required. The walls of this part of the stage were hung with tapestry, black for tragedy and blue for comedy. There was a screened inner stage. This served as the bedroom scene in ‘Othello’ and ‘Macbeth’. The fourth part of the stage was over the inner stage. It was the balcony or the upper stage. It served as the window in Shylock’s house form which Jessica threw the casket on the street.

The Elizabethan theatre had no front curtain. Therefore, a scene began with the entrance of the actors and ended with their exit. The theatre was bare. There was not much scenery on the stage. Shakespeare used poetry to create the necessary atmosphere. It is poetry which creates the picture of the shipwreck in ‘The Tempest’.

No women came forward to play women’s roles in the Elizabethan age. Young boys were employed to play female roles. Shakespeare did not tax the boy actors. In his romantic comedies, the heroine appeared in male guise in most scenes.

The performances were held in the afternoon because there was no artificial light. There was also no scenery to speak of, and the costumes let the audience know the social status of the characters. Because sumptuary laws restricted what a person could wear according to their class, actors were licensed to wear clothing above their station.

The majority of the Elizabethan audience  were uneducated riff-raff. Their tastes were crude. They enjoyed vulgar jokes. To please them Shakespeare used plenty of such jokes. Even in tragedies he used comic scenes and comic characters.

AN OUTLINE STORY OF SILAS MARNER

 

 

AN OUTLINE STORY OF SILAS MARNER       

 

            Silas Marner lives a solitary life in Lantern Yard. He is a weaver. During ‘fits’ he is not aware of the happenings around him. Silas loves a servant-woman by name Sarah. His friend name is William Dane. William says that Silas comes under the influence of Satan when he falls into fits. An old deacon dies when Silas is fast asleep by his bed. Silas is unjustly accused of theft by his own friend, so he leaves Lanten Yard and settles in Ravelo. In Ravelo, he takes pleasure in earning through weaving and counting the shining coins that he has kept hidden in the floor of his cottage.

            The most important family in Ravelo is the family of Squire Cass. His eldest son Godfrey has secretly married a disreputable opium addict by name Molley Farren. It is said that Godfrey would marry Nancy Lammeter. Dunstan blackmails Godfrey with threat to reveal the marriage to their father. Godfrey gives 100 pounds to Dunstan. The money given by Godfrey is the rent money paid one of their father’s tenants. Since neither brothers are not able to raise the money. They decide to sell Godfrey’s horse, Wildfire to repay the loan. Dunstan rides Wildfire over a fence. The horse falls and dies. Knowing the rumors of Silas’s hoard, Dunstan makes plans to intimidate the weaver into lending him money. His walk home takes him by Silas’s cottage, and, finding the cottage empty,

Dunstan decides to steal Silas Marner’s hidden gold. He takes the gold and goes out stumbling through the night. He falls into an abandoned quarry pit and is killed. Nobody knows what has happened to Dunstan. Godfrey tells his father about the rent money he has given Dunstan and about the loss of the valuable horse Wildfire, which has been found dead.

            Silas is utterly disconsolate at the loss of his gold and numbly continues his weaving. Some of the town people offer their condolences and advice to Silas. Among them Dolly Winthrop encourages Silas to go to church.

            On New Year’s Eve, Molley, Godfrey’s secret wife is making her way to the Cass’ house to reveal the secret marriage. She has their two-year old daughter in her arms. Tiring after her long walk, Molley takes opium and dies in the snow. Seeing Sila’s Cottage and drawn by the light of the fire, Molley’s little girl wanders through the open door and falls asleep at Silas hearth. Because of fits, Silas doesn’t notice the child enter his cottage. Returning from an errand, Silas sees a golden gleam in front of his hearth which he mistakes for his lost gold. On closer examination, he discovers a sleeping baby. Following the child’s tracks through the snow, he comes upon the body of the dead woman.

When Silas goes to the Squire’s house with the baby to find the doctor, Godfrey recognizing his daughter and has no courage to claim the baby for his own. Silas adopts the child. He grows increasingly attached to the child and names her Eppie, after his mother and sister. With Dolly Winthrop’s help, Silas raises the child lovingly. Eppie begins to serve as a bridge between Silas and the rest of the villagers, who offer him help and advice and have come to think of him as an exemplary person because of what he has done. Eppie also brings Silas out of the benumbed state he fell into after the loss of his gold. In his newfound happiness, Silas begins to explore the memories of his past that he has long repressed.

Years pass now Silas cottage takes on a new appearance. Dolly brings her son Aaron to play with Eppie. Godfrey marries Nancy, but it is a childless union. For sixteen years Godfrey secretly carries with him the thought of his child growing up under the care of Silas. An old stone quarry which is drained now is brought by Godfrey. The work men find a skeleton identified by Dunstan watch. Beside the skeleton is Silas’s bag of gold which is stolen on the night of Dunstan’s disappearance. At the same Godfrey confesses the story of Eppie’s birth, Nancy agrees with him that they should go to Silas and Eppie with their tale. Hearing this strange story of Eppie’s parentage. Silas opens the way for Eppie to take her wealthy heritage. But Eppie refuses the offer and informs Mr and Mrs Godfrey of her decision to marry the working man Aaron who has promised to retain Silas. After the marriage, Silas cottage is enlarged at the expense of the landlord Godfrey Cass.