Ode on Solitude - Alexander Pope

 

Ode on Solitude - Alexander Pope

Alexander Pope is one of the best known writers of the seventeenth century. He wrote Ode on Solitude in 1700, at the age of twelve. It is a beautiful and peaceful poem. The poet emphasizes how solitude is another important part of the equation. It asserts the poet’s desire to live a good, simple life and go unnoticed by the world.

In the first stanza of the poem, the poet speaks of a man with simple dreams, only living off his own land, which is also the land of his fathers. In the second stanza, his desires are further explained, as he wants to farm and live off his land, being completely self-sufficient. The third stanza states how this way of life is good because time has no meaning, one is healthy, has few worries, and lives quiet days. In the fourth stanza, recreation and innocence are revealed to be the results of this lifestyle. In the fifth and final stanza, it is revealed that the poet is the man in the poem, and he wishes to be left alone, unknown from the world.

According to the poet, a man can be truly happy if he leads a life of contentment and simplicity. He should not be greedy. He should be satisfied with the few acres of land inherited from his ancestors. His field will give him food and his cow will give him milk. His trees will give him shade and firewood and his sheep will give him the wool for clothing. He will have a healthy body and peace of mind, spending his time in study, rest and recreation. He will lead an innocent life and a life of meditation and prayer.

The poet considered this man blessed! Time almost doesn’t have meaning for this man; his world provides for all of his needs. Hours go by, days go by, years go by, and everything remains the same. The health the man is in at the beginning of this cycle is the health he remains in when it is finished. Peace of mind is normal for him — what is there to trouble him? It seems as though, in a world of peace and quiet, there is absolutely nothing that could disrupt the life of this farmer, and the poet sees that as a high blessing.

He concludes the poem by asking that he live “unseen, unknown” and die away from the world where no one can find him. It’s this kind of life, without exterior pressures or an image to maintain that appeals to him.

 

A Song for St.Cecilia’s Day- John Dryden

 A Song for St.Cecilia’s Day - John Dryden

John Dryden wrote ‘A Song for St.Cecilia’s Day’ for performance with orchestra, to celebrate the festival of St. Cecilia’s Day (Nov. 22) in 1687. St. Cecila was a pious Christian lady who sacrificed her life in Rome in the year 230 AD. She is the patron saint of music. Her music had divine qualities. The central idea of the poem is that the whole universe is a stage. It was created by the power of music and will be dissolved by the music of the last trumpet. The music thus connects the two ends of creation and destruction.

Dryden begins the poem with the observation that the universe was originally in a chaotic state and order was gradually evolved thanks to the impact of divine music. The four elements hot, cold, music and dry which had been lying pell-mell, were arranged in proper order. This evolutionary process culminated in the birth of man. All the excellences in nature are contained in man just as all the musical notes in the scale are contained in the diapason.

There is a reference to Biblical Jubal. According to the Bible, Jubal was the first musician who represented the elemental force of primitive music. When Jubal struck the chords, the listeners were enchanted. They thought that a god dwelt in the hollow of the shell and produced the ravishing music. They were sure a  human being could not produce such strains.

Of the many musical instruments mentioned in the poem, the drum with its double beat is one. Its loud clangor puts soldiers on their mettle and makes them think not in terms of running away from the battlefield. The flute, the lute and the violin express the feelings of lovers. But the organ expresses divine love. Dryden says that the organ music ascends to heaven and inspires the angels there to sing all the more 

The last section, Dryden is made a comparison  between St.Cecilia and Orpheus. Orpheus was the great classical singer who could control both man and nature through his music. ‘The savage race’ and ‘trees’ represent undisciplined nature. Yet they were tamed by the music of Orpheus. But Cecilia does more than Orpheus. The music that emanated from Cecilia’s organ was so marvellous that an angel mistook the earth for heaven. Thus Dryden establishes the superiority of musical power of St.Cecilia over the pagan musical power of Orpheus.

Dryden concludes the poem with a grand chorus. The power of music made the spheres resound: similarly the end of the universe will be announced by the powerful beat of the trumpet.

The poem ends with a prophecy that as the universe was created from the power generated out of the musical harmony, so the universe will cease to exist with the end of that harmony.

 

Trade Unionism in England

 

Trade Unionism in England

Trade unionism in England was the natural outcome of industrialism in that country. Before Industrial Revolution, workers had little chance to meet to discuss their problems. But after Industrial Revolution, many factories were established in Industrial town. It gave them opportunities to meet and to talk about their grievances. Trade unionism is defined as, association of workers formed with the purpose of improving the conditions under which work is carried on.

In the eighteenth century there were many secret trade unions in England. The ruling classes looked upon them with suspicion and disfavor. In 1799 and 1800 Combination Laws were passed by which trade unions were made illegal. Francis Place, a master-tailor took efforts for the welfare of the workers. As a result, in 1824, the House of Commons appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Joseph Hume. It supported the working class.

In the next few years, small local trade unions were combined. Thus the Grand Union of the United Kingdom and the National Association for the Protection of Labour came into existence. In 1834, the Grand Union of the United Kingdom was formed with around one million members. It was popular in the beginning, as years went by, it failed. A revival took place in 1843. In 1851 a number of unions in the engineering industry united to form the Amalgamated Society of engineers. The Trade Union Act was passed in the year 1871. According to the act, the unions were compelled to render to the union exact accounts of all the money received by them.

During the sixties and seventies trade unionism was popular only among the skilled workers. A match workers’ strike was organized by Annie Besant in 1888 to get concessions from their employers. In 1889, the union of gas workers was formed and a substantial reduction in their hours of work followed. The first railway was formed in 1871. In 1911 a strike occurred and it was called off only when a promise was that a Royal Commission would be constituted to consider the grievances of the men. The Act of 1921 made it obligatory that the railway service should be represented by the railway trade unions.

Even white-collared employees such as medical men, traders, lawyers, journalists, bank clerks and actors have their respective unions to fight for their rights and privileges. It must be stated that the Trade Union movement has done much to improve the lot in life of the workers. It is now necessary to see that Trade Union movement does not become harmful.

 

The World Wars and Social Security

 

The World Wars and Social Security

The first half of the twentieth century was a period of great progress because of the development of science and technology. But this progress was matched by disasters of the highest magnitude. The First World War started in the year 1914, paralyzed the normal life of people all over the world. By the effort of Woodrow Wilson, President of U.S.A, the War came to an end in 1918. In 1936, the Second World War started and ended in 1945. Only then, the United Nations Organization was established. It played a prominent role to prevent large-scale war on several occasions.

Both these wars brought about great changes both in England and abroad. One of the effects of the First World War was the social leveling up. After the war the class felling was not so acute as it was before. The wealthy upper class could no longer enjoy all their luxuries as the State imposed on them many taxes. Slowly they lost the social and political leadership which they had been enjoying for generations. The mass production of clothes helped for social leveling. It enabled the working man’s wife to follow the fashions of the ladies of rank. The educational institutions played an effective role in realizing the social goal of a classless society.

The Second World War is described as a war of liberation, because it brought centuries old colonial rule to an end and paved the way for many nations to become independent. Thus the age old imperialism was gone and a new era of democracy was ushered in. An earnest attempt was made by the successive Government to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor to the minimum. Coal, gas wireless and air transport were brought under the State control. The State control was exercised in the agricultural methods and marketing in the establishment of factories, and the supply of raw materials.

Soon after the Second World War a general election was held in 1945 and the Labour Party with Clement Attlee as Prime Minister came into power. The Labour Government passed a number of Acts to ensure social security and welfare for the majority of people of the country. The Family Allowance Act helped the families to get allowance for their children of school-going age. In 1946, the National Insurance Act was passed according to which the contributions by workers and employers were raised. The National Health Service Act gave free medical service to old people. This system was a boon to the needy people to improve their health. The National Assistant Act was passed for the welfare of pensioners, physically disabled and patients.

In 1950, the Conservative Governments came to power. They followed the policy inaugurated by the Labour Government. Under the leadership of Anthony Eden, the government set up the Slum Clearance Scheme. Afterwards the Macmillan Ministry set up the Housing Corporation. Thus the way was prepared for England to become a welfare state.

 

The Victorian Age

 

The Victorian Age

Queen Victoria ruled England for sixty-four years (1837 -1901). Her reign witnessed remarkable changes in many fields. She was affectionately called ‘Grand Mamma’ by the people. Her rule was disturbed by the Chartist movement or Chartism. It shows the difference between the haves and the have-nots. Under the leadership of Feargus O’Connor, they drew up a Charter called the People’s Charter. It contained six demands. It was presented to Parliament. It was so shocking to Whigs as well as Tories. The demand was turned down by the Parliament.

After Napoleonic War, working classes suffered a lot. To eradicate it, the first Anti-Corn Law League was founded in 1839. Prompted by humanitarian consideration, the Prime Minister Robert Peel repealed the Corn law in 1846.

The Great Exhibition of 1851, was a clear evidence to see artistic works and raw materials gathered from every corner of the empire and the world. Henry Bessemer’s process which made possible the mass production of steel and Michael Faraday’s discoveries of electrical power added much to the material prosperity of the period. The use of chloroform in medical practice by Simpson in 1847 and the anti-septic surgery developed by Joseph Lister came as great relief to the suffering humanity. In 1859, Charles Darwin, the great scientist of the day published ‘The Origin of Species’. It brought forth a rather shocking theory that man and all other species of life had evolved from a common source. It was a bolt from the blue and clashed with the Biblical account of the creation of man and in turn led to a bitter battle of words between churchmen and scientist.

Along with these social and scientific advancement there was going on a religious movement similar to the Methodist movement, started by the Wesley brothers in the previous century. This was the Oxford movement otherwise known as the Tractarian Movement started by John Henry Newman and a few other Oxford scholars in 1833.

The Crimean War came to an end with the treaty of Paris in 1856. On 1^st January 1877, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India. There was a marvelous output of literature in the Victorian age. Alfred Tennyson became the Poet Laureate in 1850. Robert Browning, famous for his dramatic monologues was his nearest rival. The other poets of the period were, Matthew Arnold, Swinburne, Dante Gabriel, Rossetti, his sister Christina Rossetti, Fitzgerald, William Morris, Arthur Clough. Great among the prose writers were, Carlyle, Macaulay, Ruskin, Newman and many others. As far as the novel was concerned it was the age of giants. Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackaray, George Eliot and many others.

The latter half of Queen Victoria’s reign was noted for many reforms in the field of both politics and education. The Reform Act of 1867 and 1884 extended the right of vote to larger and larger sections of society. At any rate, speaking on the whole, the Victorian Age was a period of peace and prosperity.

 

COLONIAL EXPANSION

 

COLONIAL EXPANSION

In the end of the 16^th century, for various reasons many people left England. After the Wars of the Roses wealth was increasing and it served as an incentive for overseas enterprise. Colonies were founded in America and in the West Indian Islands because of the hard work of the adventurers. Important trade centres  were established in South Africa and India. Thus by the early decades of the decades of the 18^th century, there were thirteen colonies on the east coast of America, between Nova Scotia in the north and Florida in the south. These colonies were of three groups, namely New England colonies, the Middle Colonies and the Southern colonies.

In the early Elizabethan period, Sir Walter Raleigh made several attempts to establish colonies. His first settlement was on Roanoke island off the coast of North Carolina. It was named Virginia to honor Queen Elizabeth.. Later, Raleigh sold his rights to the Plymouth company and the London company. In 1607, the London company under the leadership of Captain John Smith made the first  permanent settlement. They called it as Jamestown in honor of James I. The colonist needed more labour for the development of their colony and it was solved by purchasing the negro slaves.

In 1620, a group of Puritans from Scotland migrated to America and establish a religious society there. These ‘Pilgrim Fathers’ set out from Plymouth harbor in England in a ship called the Mayflower and landed near Cape Cod. That place was named New Plymouth to commemorate the English port. In 1629,  the Puritans obtained a Charter from Charles I. Two more colonies were founded in New England in the early part of the 17^th century. In 1636, Roger Williams with his followers founded a small settlement called Providence. Thomas Hooker another religious leader settled at a place called New Haven and the colony was named Connecticut. Similarly, another colony called New Hampshire was formed .

In 1632, Charles I granted  a block of land to Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, on the Potomac River. Thus in 1634, was founded the Maryland colony, the first Roman Catholic settlement in America.

The Dutch had formed the settlement-called a settlement of New Amsterdam near the mouth of the Hudson River. During the Dutch war in 1664, this area passed into the hands of the British and was named New York in honor of the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II, who later became James II. In 1681 Charles II gave William Penn, a Quaker, a large tract of land west of the Delaware River. This was named Pennsylvannia. Penn leased land in the south and the east , which became the colony of Delaware and New Jersey.In 1663, Charles II granted to eight noblemen called ‘Proprietors’ all the territory south of Virginia. It is called Carolina. In 1670, the city of Charleston was founded and later it was divided into two colonies, North and South Carolina.

By the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, England became the possessor of territories in all parts of the world.

The East India Company

 

The East India Company

Queen Elizabeth was much interested in starting a network of colonies in different parts of the world. As part of her plan she granted a Royal Charter to the East India Company to establish trade links with India. The company was started with the capital of 70,000 dollars contributed by 125 shareholders.

In 1640, the East India Company bought some land in the northern part of Chennai from the Raja of Chandragiri. Francis Day constructed a fort there called Fort St. George. This was the origin of the Presidency of Madras.

In 1661, the East India Company bought the marshy land in Bombay for an annual rent of just ten pounds. Then, the Governor General Aungler converted the marshy land into a beautiful town with a natural harbor. Many trading companies were shifted to Bombay. This was the beginning of the Presidency of Bombay.

In 1690, the famous British Agent Job Charnock built a fort at Calcutta. It was called Fort William. Many factories were shifted to this place. This was the beginning of the Presidency of Bengal. Thus the company gained a foothold in three key centres in India.

The company turned its attention to the goal of ruling India. The instability consequent on the collapse of the Mugal Empire gave opportunities to the East India company to attain its goal. In the south India, Dupleix, the French and Robert Clive, the Englishman had a competition to gain control over Hyderabad and Karnataka. Clive gained the control. By winning the battle of Plassey, Clive captured Bengal. He became the first Governor of Bengal. The company won the Maratha wars and destroyed Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan. Similarly, the Sikh leaders were destroyed by the company.

To streamline the irregularities of the East India Company, the Governor of Bengal was made Governor General. The company’s mismanagement was still rampant, so Queen Victoria abolished the powers of the East India Company. The government of India was taken over by the Queen herself. This brought the rule of the East India company in India to a close.

The company was in India for 258 years. It changed the life style of Indians. All walks of life were Westernized.  Macaulay made English the medium of instruction in Indian colleges and universities. Governor General  William Bentinck abolished the barbarous practice of Sati. Raja Ram Mohan Roy assisted the same. The British government brought about revolutionary changes such as the use of the railways, the post and telegraph and other means of communication. At the same time valuable Indian literary works such as the ‘Bhagavad Gita and Thirukural’ attracted foreign scholars. They were translated into English.