Trade Unionism in England

 

Trade Unionism in England

Trade unionism in England was the natural outcome of industrialism in that country. Before Industrial Revolution, workers had little chance to meet to discuss their problems. But after Industrial Revolution, many factories were established in Industrial town. It gave them opportunities to meet and to talk about their grievances. Trade unionism is defined as, association of workers formed with the purpose of improving the conditions under which work is carried on.

In the eighteenth century there were many secret trade unions in England. The ruling classes looked upon them with suspicion and disfavor. In 1799 and 1800 Combination Laws were passed by which trade unions were made illegal. Francis Place, a master-tailor took efforts for the welfare of the workers. As a result, in 1824, the House of Commons appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Joseph Hume. It supported the working class.

In the next few years, small local trade unions were combined. Thus the Grand Union of the United Kingdom and the National Association for the Protection of Labour came into existence. In 1834, the Grand Union of the United Kingdom was formed with around one million members. It was popular in the beginning, as years went by, it failed. A revival took place in 1843. In 1851 a number of unions in the engineering industry united to form the Amalgamated Society of engineers. The Trade Union Act was passed in the year 1871. According to the act, the unions were compelled to render to the union exact accounts of all the money received by them.

During the sixties and seventies trade unionism was popular only among the skilled workers. A match workers’ strike was organized by Annie Besant in 1888 to get concessions from their employers. In 1889, the union of gas workers was formed and a substantial reduction in their hours of work followed. The first railway was formed in 1871. In 1911 a strike occurred and it was called off only when a promise was that a Royal Commission would be constituted to consider the grievances of the men. The Act of 1921 made it obligatory that the railway service should be represented by the railway trade unions.

Even white-collared employees such as medical men, traders, lawyers, journalists, bank clerks and actors have their respective unions to fight for their rights and privileges. It must be stated that the Trade Union movement has done much to improve the lot in life of the workers. It is now necessary to see that Trade Union movement does not become harmful.

 

The World Wars and Social Security

 

The World Wars and Social Security

The first half of the twentieth century was a period of great progress because of the development of science and technology. But this progress was matched by disasters of the highest magnitude. The First World War started in the year 1914, paralyzed the normal life of people all over the world. By the effort of Woodrow Wilson, President of U.S.A, the War came to an end in 1918. In 1936, the Second World War started and ended in 1945. Only then, the United Nations Organization was established. It played a prominent role to prevent large-scale war on several occasions.

Both these wars brought about great changes both in England and abroad. One of the effects of the First World War was the social leveling up. After the war the class felling was not so acute as it was before. The wealthy upper class could no longer enjoy all their luxuries as the State imposed on them many taxes. Slowly they lost the social and political leadership which they had been enjoying for generations. The mass production of clothes helped for social leveling. It enabled the working man’s wife to follow the fashions of the ladies of rank. The educational institutions played an effective role in realizing the social goal of a classless society.

The Second World War is described as a war of liberation, because it brought centuries old colonial rule to an end and paved the way for many nations to become independent. Thus the age old imperialism was gone and a new era of democracy was ushered in. An earnest attempt was made by the successive Government to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor to the minimum. Coal, gas wireless and air transport were brought under the State control. The State control was exercised in the agricultural methods and marketing in the establishment of factories, and the supply of raw materials.

Soon after the Second World War a general election was held in 1945 and the Labour Party with Clement Attlee as Prime Minister came into power. The Labour Government passed a number of Acts to ensure social security and welfare for the majority of people of the country. The Family Allowance Act helped the families to get allowance for their children of school-going age. In 1946, the National Insurance Act was passed according to which the contributions by workers and employers were raised. The National Health Service Act gave free medical service to old people. This system was a boon to the needy people to improve their health. The National Assistant Act was passed for the welfare of pensioners, physically disabled and patients.

In 1950, the Conservative Governments came to power. They followed the policy inaugurated by the Labour Government. Under the leadership of Anthony Eden, the government set up the Slum Clearance Scheme. Afterwards the Macmillan Ministry set up the Housing Corporation. Thus the way was prepared for England to become a welfare state.

 

The Victorian Age

 

The Victorian Age

Queen Victoria ruled England for sixty-four years (1837 -1901). Her reign witnessed remarkable changes in many fields. She was affectionately called ‘Grand Mamma’ by the people. Her rule was disturbed by the Chartist movement or Chartism. It shows the difference between the haves and the have-nots. Under the leadership of Feargus O’Connor, they drew up a Charter called the People’s Charter. It contained six demands. It was presented to Parliament. It was so shocking to Whigs as well as Tories. The demand was turned down by the Parliament.

After Napoleonic War, working classes suffered a lot. To eradicate it, the first Anti-Corn Law League was founded in 1839. Prompted by humanitarian consideration, the Prime Minister Robert Peel repealed the Corn law in 1846.

The Great Exhibition of 1851, was a clear evidence to see artistic works and raw materials gathered from every corner of the empire and the world. Henry Bessemer’s process which made possible the mass production of steel and Michael Faraday’s discoveries of electrical power added much to the material prosperity of the period. The use of chloroform in medical practice by Simpson in 1847 and the anti-septic surgery developed by Joseph Lister came as great relief to the suffering humanity. In 1859, Charles Darwin, the great scientist of the day published ‘The Origin of Species’. It brought forth a rather shocking theory that man and all other species of life had evolved from a common source. It was a bolt from the blue and clashed with the Biblical account of the creation of man and in turn led to a bitter battle of words between churchmen and scientist.

Along with these social and scientific advancement there was going on a religious movement similar to the Methodist movement, started by the Wesley brothers in the previous century. This was the Oxford movement otherwise known as the Tractarian Movement started by John Henry Newman and a few other Oxford scholars in 1833.

The Crimean War came to an end with the treaty of Paris in 1856. On 1^st January 1877, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India. There was a marvelous output of literature in the Victorian age. Alfred Tennyson became the Poet Laureate in 1850. Robert Browning, famous for his dramatic monologues was his nearest rival. The other poets of the period were, Matthew Arnold, Swinburne, Dante Gabriel, Rossetti, his sister Christina Rossetti, Fitzgerald, William Morris, Arthur Clough. Great among the prose writers were, Carlyle, Macaulay, Ruskin, Newman and many others. As far as the novel was concerned it was the age of giants. Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackaray, George Eliot and many others.

The latter half of Queen Victoria’s reign was noted for many reforms in the field of both politics and education. The Reform Act of 1867 and 1884 extended the right of vote to larger and larger sections of society. At any rate, speaking on the whole, the Victorian Age was a period of peace and prosperity.

 

COLONIAL EXPANSION

 

COLONIAL EXPANSION

In the end of the 16^th century, for various reasons many people left England. After the Wars of the Roses wealth was increasing and it served as an incentive for overseas enterprise. Colonies were founded in America and in the West Indian Islands because of the hard work of the adventurers. Important trade centres  were established in South Africa and India. Thus by the early decades of the decades of the 18^th century, there were thirteen colonies on the east coast of America, between Nova Scotia in the north and Florida in the south. These colonies were of three groups, namely New England colonies, the Middle Colonies and the Southern colonies.

In the early Elizabethan period, Sir Walter Raleigh made several attempts to establish colonies. His first settlement was on Roanoke island off the coast of North Carolina. It was named Virginia to honor Queen Elizabeth.. Later, Raleigh sold his rights to the Plymouth company and the London company. In 1607, the London company under the leadership of Captain John Smith made the first  permanent settlement. They called it as Jamestown in honor of James I. The colonist needed more labour for the development of their colony and it was solved by purchasing the negro slaves.

In 1620, a group of Puritans from Scotland migrated to America and establish a religious society there. These ‘Pilgrim Fathers’ set out from Plymouth harbor in England in a ship called the Mayflower and landed near Cape Cod. That place was named New Plymouth to commemorate the English port. In 1629,  the Puritans obtained a Charter from Charles I. Two more colonies were founded in New England in the early part of the 17^th century. In 1636, Roger Williams with his followers founded a small settlement called Providence. Thomas Hooker another religious leader settled at a place called New Haven and the colony was named Connecticut. Similarly, another colony called New Hampshire was formed .

In 1632, Charles I granted  a block of land to Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, on the Potomac River. Thus in 1634, was founded the Maryland colony, the first Roman Catholic settlement in America.

The Dutch had formed the settlement-called a settlement of New Amsterdam near the mouth of the Hudson River. During the Dutch war in 1664, this area passed into the hands of the British and was named New York in honor of the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II, who later became James II. In 1681 Charles II gave William Penn, a Quaker, a large tract of land west of the Delaware River. This was named Pennsylvannia. Penn leased land in the south and the east , which became the colony of Delaware and New Jersey.In 1663, Charles II granted to eight noblemen called ‘Proprietors’ all the territory south of Virginia. It is called Carolina. In 1670, the city of Charleston was founded and later it was divided into two colonies, North and South Carolina.

By the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, England became the possessor of territories in all parts of the world.

The East India Company

 

The East India Company

Queen Elizabeth was much interested in starting a network of colonies in different parts of the world. As part of her plan she granted a Royal Charter to the East India Company to establish trade links with India. The company was started with the capital of 70,000 dollars contributed by 125 shareholders.

In 1640, the East India Company bought some land in the northern part of Chennai from the Raja of Chandragiri. Francis Day constructed a fort there called Fort St. George. This was the origin of the Presidency of Madras.

In 1661, the East India Company bought the marshy land in Bombay for an annual rent of just ten pounds. Then, the Governor General Aungler converted the marshy land into a beautiful town with a natural harbor. Many trading companies were shifted to Bombay. This was the beginning of the Presidency of Bombay.

In 1690, the famous British Agent Job Charnock built a fort at Calcutta. It was called Fort William. Many factories were shifted to this place. This was the beginning of the Presidency of Bengal. Thus the company gained a foothold in three key centres in India.

The company turned its attention to the goal of ruling India. The instability consequent on the collapse of the Mugal Empire gave opportunities to the East India company to attain its goal. In the south India, Dupleix, the French and Robert Clive, the Englishman had a competition to gain control over Hyderabad and Karnataka. Clive gained the control. By winning the battle of Plassey, Clive captured Bengal. He became the first Governor of Bengal. The company won the Maratha wars and destroyed Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan. Similarly, the Sikh leaders were destroyed by the company.

To streamline the irregularities of the East India Company, the Governor of Bengal was made Governor General. The company’s mismanagement was still rampant, so Queen Victoria abolished the powers of the East India Company. The government of India was taken over by the Queen herself. This brought the rule of the East India company in India to a close.

The company was in India for 258 years. It changed the life style of Indians. All walks of life were Westernized.  Macaulay made English the medium of instruction in Indian colleges and universities. Governor General  William Bentinck abolished the barbarous practice of Sati. Raja Ram Mohan Roy assisted the same. The British government brought about revolutionary changes such as the use of the railways, the post and telegraph and other means of communication. At the same time valuable Indian literary works such as the ‘Bhagavad Gita and Thirukural’ attracted foreign scholars. They were translated into English.

The Elizabethan Theatre

 

The Elizabethan Theatre

Elizabethan drama was the dominant art form that flourished during and a little after the reign of Elizabeth I, who was Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. 

The Elizabethan Theatre was a booming business. People loved the theatre. The Elizabethan plays and theatres were so popular. Huge amounts of money could be made. The inn-keepers increased their profits by allowing plays to be shown on temporary stages erected in the yards of their inns. Soon purpose-built playhouses and great open theatres were being constructed. The history of the Elizabethan Theatre started in 1576.

In 1576, James Burbage obtains lease and permission to build ‘The Theatre’ in London. Another open air amphitheatre called ‘The Curtain’ opened in 1577. In 1587, Surrey opened an amphitheatre called ‘The Rose’. In 1593, theatres were closed due to the Plague. In 1599, ‘The Globe’ was opened on Bankside.

The Globe was very popular in the Elizabethan age. Shakespeare wrote most of his plays for this theatre. This theatre was a wooden structure. It was hexagonal outside and round within. The stage was divided into four parts. The front stage projected far into the auditorium. This part of the stage served as a street or battlefield or garden. It was open to the sky. The back stage was the part behind the pillars. It served as a large room, a palace hall, an office or a tavern as required. The walls of this part of the stage were hung with tapestry, black for tragedy and blue for comedy. There was a screened inner stage. This served as the bedroom scene in ‘Othello’ and ‘Macbeth’. The fourth part of the stage was over the inner stage. It was the balcony or the upper stage. It served as the window in Shylock’s house form which Jessica threw the casket on the street.

The Elizabethan theatre had no front curtain. Therefore, a scene began with the entrance of the actors and ended with their exit. The theatre was bare. There was not much scenery on the stage. Shakespeare used poetry to create the necessary atmosphere. It is poetry which creates the picture of the shipwreck in ‘The Tempest’.

No women came forward to play women’s roles in the Elizabethan age. Young boys were employed to play female roles. Shakespeare did not tax the boy actors. In his romantic comedies, the heroine appeared in male guise in most scenes.

The performances were held in the afternoon because there was no artificial light. There was also no scenery to speak of, and the costumes let the audience know the social status of the characters. Because sumptuary laws restricted what a person could wear according to their class, actors were licensed to wear clothing above their station.

The majority of the Elizabethan audience  were uneducated riff-raff. Their tastes were crude. They enjoyed vulgar jokes. To please them Shakespeare used plenty of such jokes. Even in tragedies he used comic scenes and comic characters.

AN OUTLINE STORY OF SILAS MARNER

 

 

AN OUTLINE STORY OF SILAS MARNER       

 

            Silas Marner lives a solitary life in Lantern Yard. He is a weaver. During ‘fits’ he is not aware of the happenings around him. Silas loves a servant-woman by name Sarah. His friend name is William Dane. William says that Silas comes under the influence of Satan when he falls into fits. An old deacon dies when Silas is fast asleep by his bed. Silas is unjustly accused of theft by his own friend, so he leaves Lanten Yard and settles in Ravelo. In Ravelo, he takes pleasure in earning through weaving and counting the shining coins that he has kept hidden in the floor of his cottage.

            The most important family in Ravelo is the family of Squire Cass. His eldest son Godfrey has secretly married a disreputable opium addict by name Molley Farren. It is said that Godfrey would marry Nancy Lammeter. Dunstan blackmails Godfrey with threat to reveal the marriage to their father. Godfrey gives 100 pounds to Dunstan. The money given by Godfrey is the rent money paid one of their father’s tenants. Since neither brothers are not able to raise the money. They decide to sell Godfrey’s horse, Wildfire to repay the loan. Dunstan rides Wildfire over a fence. The horse falls and dies. Knowing the rumors of Silas’s hoard, Dunstan makes plans to intimidate the weaver into lending him money. His walk home takes him by Silas’s cottage, and, finding the cottage empty,

Dunstan decides to steal Silas Marner’s hidden gold. He takes the gold and goes out stumbling through the night. He falls into an abandoned quarry pit and is killed. Nobody knows what has happened to Dunstan. Godfrey tells his father about the rent money he has given Dunstan and about the loss of the valuable horse Wildfire, which has been found dead.

            Silas is utterly disconsolate at the loss of his gold and numbly continues his weaving. Some of the town people offer their condolences and advice to Silas. Among them Dolly Winthrop encourages Silas to go to church.

            On New Year’s Eve, Molley, Godfrey’s secret wife is making her way to the Cass’ house to reveal the secret marriage. She has their two-year old daughter in her arms. Tiring after her long walk, Molley takes opium and dies in the snow. Seeing Sila’s Cottage and drawn by the light of the fire, Molley’s little girl wanders through the open door and falls asleep at Silas hearth. Because of fits, Silas doesn’t notice the child enter his cottage. Returning from an errand, Silas sees a golden gleam in front of his hearth which he mistakes for his lost gold. On closer examination, he discovers a sleeping baby. Following the child’s tracks through the snow, he comes upon the body of the dead woman.

When Silas goes to the Squire’s house with the baby to find the doctor, Godfrey recognizing his daughter and has no courage to claim the baby for his own. Silas adopts the child. He grows increasingly attached to the child and names her Eppie, after his mother and sister. With Dolly Winthrop’s help, Silas raises the child lovingly. Eppie begins to serve as a bridge between Silas and the rest of the villagers, who offer him help and advice and have come to think of him as an exemplary person because of what he has done. Eppie also brings Silas out of the benumbed state he fell into after the loss of his gold. In his newfound happiness, Silas begins to explore the memories of his past that he has long repressed.

Years pass now Silas cottage takes on a new appearance. Dolly brings her son Aaron to play with Eppie. Godfrey marries Nancy, but it is a childless union. For sixteen years Godfrey secretly carries with him the thought of his child growing up under the care of Silas. An old stone quarry which is drained now is brought by Godfrey. The work men find a skeleton identified by Dunstan watch. Beside the skeleton is Silas’s bag of gold which is stolen on the night of Dunstan’s disappearance. At the same Godfrey confesses the story of Eppie’s birth, Nancy agrees with him that they should go to Silas and Eppie with their tale. Hearing this strange story of Eppie’s parentage. Silas opens the way for Eppie to take her wealthy heritage. But Eppie refuses the offer and informs Mr and Mrs Godfrey of her decision to marry the working man Aaron who has promised to retain Silas. After the marriage, Silas cottage is enlarged at the expense of the landlord Godfrey Cass.

 

The Tudor Navy and Spanish Armada

 

The Tudor Navy and Spanish Armada

Elizabeth’s conquest of the Spanish Armada is one of her important achievements. It made the supremacy of England’s navy.

Cause of the naval battle

Queen Elizabeth remained a virgin all her life. She gave false promises of marriage to a large number of men in order to keep them subordinate to herself. It was her trick in the political game. Philip II, the king of Spain, was one of the men. He was deeply disappointed when she abandoned him. It created a friction between the two countries.

Spain was monarch of the sea for long. Spanish traders were troubled by English pirates.These  pirates were called sea-dogs. Philip’s galleon had colonized Portugal, Southern and Central America, and Indies. The Spanish galleons looted these countries and brought their gold and silver to Spain.

The Tudor monarchs wanted to have a share in the growing maritime trade. Henry VIII supported John Calbot who discovered Labrador. A team of private merchants from England established trade contacts with South America. A new English company called ‘The Company of Merchant Adventures’ was formed. Sebestian Calbot, son of John Calbot was the Chief of the company. It had trade with Baltic and Scandinavian markets.

John Hawkins, was a famous navigator, who brought negroes in West Africa and sold them at a huge profit to the Spaniards in America to work in their mines. Philip disliked the intrusion of Hawkins and tried to capture him. Hawkins escaped and returned to England. In the same way Fancis Drake and Martin Frobisher also looted the Spaniards. Queen Elizabeth supported Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher and gave them jobs in her navy.

Philip sponsored Mary, Queen of Scots. He planned to throw out Elizabeth and make Mary the queen of England. Her execution and the suppression of the Catholics in England angered Philip. Drake sailed into the harbor of Cadiz and sank a Spanish ship, so Philip declared an open war against England.

The Spanish fleet called the Armada anchored in the shape of the crescent moon. It was captained by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. It consisted of one hundred and thirty ships. The horns of the crescent were seven miles long. The Spanish ships were huge merchant ships. They were unfit for war. The English fleet was captained by Lord Howard of Effingham and assisted by Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher.

The Spanish ships were anchored off Calais. At night the English admiral set fire to some old ships of his and let the wind carry them. The ships were loaded with inflammable material. On seeing this moving inferno, the Spanish sailors panicked. They sailed in confusion. The English sailors pursued them and destroyed most of them. This was a decisive victory for England.

The victory of England was greeted by the Protestants both in England and abroad. They considered this as God’s punishment for Philip’s action. Having gained naval supremacy, England was able to establish many colonies unhindered by rivals. After this, Elizabeth started to concentrate on internal problems and work for the progress of England.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

 

 

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

The monasteries were centres of learning many centuries ago. The monks who lived there were devoted to the cause of education. It functioned as hospitals. The poor and orphaned were taken care of there. But in course of time the monasteries degenerated. Martin Luther, a German monk objected the commercialization of the church. All the protesters against the corrupt Roman church stood behind Luther. The anger of the people against the monasteries reached the boiling point in the age of Henry VIII. In England the clash was due to personal reasons, so the king decided to dissolve the monasteries. The monks were the supporters of the Pope. The closing down of the monasteries and disbanding of the unfaithful monks was Henry’s indirect revenge on the Pope. Henry’s treasury was empty, because of his several wars with France and other neighbouring countries. To satisfy the demands, he seized the wealth of the monasteries.

The Act 1536 empowered the king to dissolve 276 small monasteries at first. The Duke of Suffolk led the military force to destruct a monastery in Lincolnshire. The Pilgrimage of Grace in Yorkshire was popular. In 1536, it was destructed. A lawyer called Robert Aske joined with the rebellious monks and captured York. Seeing the strength, the king offered a general pardon of the rebels. But the King reacted ferociously in 1539. He ordered the soldiers to kill the rebels. Following this, many abbeys were dissolved in 1539. The famous shrine of Becket at Canterbury was looted and its offerings confiscated in 1538

Effects of the Dissolution

The monastic income was one-third of the total income of England. The king and his greedy courtiers swallowed most of it. A new middle class arose. They bought monastic land at a cheap rate and remained loyal to the king. The original abbey buildings were ruthlessly destroyed. Most of the noblest monuments were lost. The libraries in many abbeys had rare manuscripts. They were all destroyed. Monks became jobless. The gentlemen helped by the monasteries were now abandoned. The destruction of the Sea-side abbeys left the nation unprotected.

Thus in many ways the dissolution of the monasteries caused an heavy loss to the nation. It was all due to the sloth and luxury of the monks.

THE REFORMATION

 

THE REFORMATION

Introduction

 The Reformation was a world- wide religious movement. It started in Germany and spread to other nations.

The Reformation in Germany

The Pope and other dignitaries of the church led luxurious lives. They did not show any interest in preaching or in promoting the welfare of congregation. As a result, people had dissatisfaction against the church. In the meantime, Pope Julius decided to construct a grand new Basilica by demolishing the old medieval church. The next Pope Leo X, was ready to pardon the sinners if they donated money towards the construction of St.Peter’s Basilica. People who had the superstitious belief were ready to pay money to the Pope to escape from their sins. A German monk by name Martin Luther objected to the commercialization of the church. He prepared ninety-five objections against the practice of church. All the protesters against the corrupt Roman Church stood behind Luther. Thus was born the Protestant religion.

The Reformation in England

The German Reformation was due to Martin Luther’s doctrinal clash with the Pope, whereas in England the clash was purely due to personal reasons. In the beginning the English King Henry VIII was a strong supporter of Pope Leo X. He showed his loyalty to the Pope by banning Luther’s controversial works in England. He also published his ‘Assertion of the Seven Sacraments’ rebutting Luther’s charges point by point. The Pope was pleased of the King’s support and bestowed the title Defender of the Faith on Henry.

     The harmonious relationship between Henry with Rome was broken when the King wanted to divorce his wife Catherine of Rome and marry Anne Boleyn. The Pope did not grant permission to the proposal, so the king decided to cut down his relationship with the Pope. He convened a Parliament which was favourable to him. It came to be called the Reformation Parliament. He passed a series of Acts which curtailed the powers of the Pope. By passing the Act of Supremacy in 1534, Henry became the supreme head of the Church in England. Sir Thomash More and Bishop Fisher adamantly refused to accept the supremacy of Henry. They were beheaded and their heads were displayed on London Bridge to threaten all dissenters into submission. This incident turned people against Henry

Dissolution of monasteries

Henry dissolved all the monasteries and seized their wealth. To show himself as a supporter of Catholic he passed some articles in favour of Catholics.

Reformation during Edward VI regime

The next king Edward VI followed Henry’s footprint. He dissolved the chantries also. In 1549, the prayer book prepared by Archbishop Cranmer was prescribed. The prayer book contained nothing new.

Reformation during Mary Tudor regime

She abolished the English Prayer book enforced by Edward VI. She tried to wipe out Protestantism by burning its supporters. Among three hundred people who were burnt were John Roger, Cranmer and the preacher Latimer. These ruthless measures earned her the nick name ‘Bloody Mary’. She was succeeded by Elizabeth

Reformation during Elizabeth regime

Elizabeth took measures to correct the mistakes committed by Henry VIII and Mary. At the same time she was particular about maintaining the sovereignty of England. Later, the Roman church was stripped of its powers gradually by successive rulers. Through her mild measures Queen Elizabeth established the superiority of the Church of England to the Roman Church. She did not beheaded or burn anybody, so she was adored by the people.

The Renaissance

 

The Renaissance

Introduction

The period between the tenth century and the fifteenth centuries is known as the Medieval age or the Middle Ages. It is also called as the Dark Age because it was unenlightened both intellectually and spiritually. Constantinople, the capital of the eastern Roman empire, was captured by the Truks in 1453. Fearing ill-treatment, Greek and Latin scholars fled from Constantinople. They took shelter in Italy, Germany, France and other European countries. They carried Latin and Greek classics and taught them wherever they settled. This was the origin of the Renaissance

Renaissance and  literature

Three great Italian writers Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio created an interest for learning Latin. Their works came to be read far and wide. Shakespeare derived the sonnet form from Petrarch. The Italian writers spread the ideal of humanism. Man was their central concern. Machiavelli was another great Italian writer. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey got a universal appeal.

Renaissance and science

John Gutenberg of Germany invented the printing press in 1454. Before the invention, books were copied manually by the copyists in monasteries. The process consumed more time. After the invention, books were available at a cheap rate. It increased the readers number. The first Latin Bible was printed in Italy in 1455. In a short period presses were started all over Europe. Caxton introduced the printing press in England in 1476.

The mariner’s compass was another important invention. It helped mariners to reach far-off regions. Columbus discovered America in 1492. Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on the western coast of India accidentally in 1498. Magellan set out to explore the Pacific Ocean in 1519.

Copernicus disproved the Ptolemaic theory that the earth was the centre of the universe. Kepler proved that the earth and the other planets rotated round the sun in elliptical and not in circular paths. In 1609 Galileo invented a telescope with which he proved that the sun was turning on its axis. Many important discoveries were made in the field of medicine too.

 

Renaissance painting

Michael Angelo, Raphael Leonardo da Vinci and Titan were the most famous painters of renaissance. Michael Angelo paintings based on Biblical themes. He painted the picture of “The Last Judgement” in Sistine Chapel. Leonard de Vinci created the fresco of ‘The Last Supper’ on the walls in Milan. His another famous picture is Mona Lisa

Renaissance sculpture

Lorenzo Ghiberti and Michael Angelo were the great Renaissance sculptors. Michael Angelo was not only a painter but also a sculptor. He is known for statues of David and Moses. His statue of Virgin Mary holding the dead body of Christ on her lap is an immortal work.

Thus the renaissance made remarkable changes in many fields.

 

Editing

 

What is continuity editing in film?

Continuity editing is an editing system used to maintain consistency of both time and space in the film. Continuity editing helps ground audiences in the reality of the film while establishing a clear and structured narrative.

The goal of continuity editing is to make the mechanisms of filmmaking invisible as to help the audience dismiss disbelief more easily.

Continuity editing, also referred to as three-dimensional continuity, is the predominant editing style among commercial Hollywood films.

Techniques of continuity editing in film

Eye line

Eye trace

180 degree rule

Matching action

Continuity in film follows a few fundamental rules. Here are a few rules and techniques of continuity editing. While these rules are occasionally and intentionally broken in filmmaking, understanding these rules are important for every filmmaker.

CONTINUITY IN FILM TECHNIQUES

Eyeline

The eyeline match is one of the most fundamental tools in continuity editing. It aims to fulfill the expectation of an audience to see what a character is looking at when they are looking off screen.

When the scene is a dialogue between multiple people, one character often looks screen left while the other character looks screen right to maintain the consistency that these characters are looking at each other. This is fundamental when shooting over the shoulder, shot reverse shot scenes.

 

The importance of eye line match occurs when sequential shots may not have been shot chronologically. In fact, the actors may have been on set at different times. Maintaining the eyeline match creates the illusion that they are both present in the same room at the same time in the film.

Eyeline match does not solely pertain to left or right, but can be more precise such as matching the height of another character or object vertically. If there are a group of characters, like in a dinner scene, it is important to be precise with the eye lines so that the audience will understand who each character is looking at

180-degree rule

If you have taken a class on editing or cinematography, one of the first rules you will learn about is the 180-degree rule. The 180-degree rule is meant to orient the audience and help them understand where characters are in relation to each other and their environment.

To do this, you filmmakers create an imaginary line between two subjects in a scene. Then they keep every camera setup on the same side of this line, within the same 180 degrees.

 

 The 180-degree rule is important when cutting between characters in the same space. But what happens when you want to cut to the same character from a different angle in the same space? This is where the 30-degree rule comes into play.

30-degree rule

Sometimes filmmakers cut from one shot of a character to a different shot of the same character either to change the shot angle or cut to different shot sizes. To avoid jarring discontinuity editing or a jump cut the two different shots must be taken from at least 30-degrees apart.

The 30-degree rule is incredibly important when shooting with multiple cameras which many cinematographers often do. It is an important rule that allows filmmakers to change the perspective of the camera while maintaining the consistency and logic of the scene.

Some filmmakers purposely break the 30-degree rule and use a jump cut and discontinuity editing. We’ll touch on why filmmakers do that in a bit.

WHAT IS A MATCH ON ACTION CUT?

Matching action

Editing to match the action of characters is one of if not the most basic tool to continuity editing. What is a match on action cut? It is a staple to what some editors refer to as invisible editing. Matching action simply aims to cut on the same frame of a character’s action between two shots. In this action scene from Mad Max: Fury Road, pay attention to every cut and notice how many cut on the action of a character to make the scene smooth in consistent shot to shot.

This will maintain the continuity of motion between two takes, otherwise known as invisible editing. Cutting on action is just one example of a match cut — some match cut techniques are designed to maintain continuity while others are meant to disrupt that flow. To better understand this technique, check out the video tutorial below.

Cutting on action is important. Looking for small actions to cut on like a character standing up or picking up an object will help when cutting to continuity.

CONTINUITY OF MOTION

Eye trace

All of the rules of continuity editing above help maintain the illusion of a scene’s time and space. Eye trace, on the other hand, is more of a storytelling editing technique to keep in mind when cutting to continuity.

Eye trace is a technique and part of Walter Murch's Rule of Six that allows an editor and director to direct the audience's eyes and attention toward a specific detail on screen through a cut. For example, if the first shot has a subject in the bottom left of the screen, the next shot may have an important plot detail in the same position to ensure the audience will see it. 

The eye trace is an editing technique that will immediately elevate the level of your editing. While it isn’t necessarily a rule of continuity editing, it is an important technique to keep in mind. It will help you be a more effective editor and storyteller in the long run.

 

What is a jump cut?

In filmmaking, a jump cut is an edit to a single, sequential shot that makes the action appear to leap forward in time. After the cut, the subject may appear in a different position or attitude, or the camera position may be slightly different. This cut style is a great departure from the standard conventions of continuity editing, which dictate that the camera angle should change by at least 30 degrees from one clip to the next.

 

A brief history of the jump cut.

In the early 1900s, filmmaker Georges Méliès discovered the jump cut and used it to portray magic tricks. With cuts that appeared seamless, Méliès made characters magically disappear and reappear.

 

Jump to 1959 and Jean-Luc Godard’s Breathless. Godard broke the rules with obvious jump cuts in the same sequence. During a driving scene, the camera angle remains the same, over the shoulder of the character Patricia in the passenger seat, but the scenery in the background changes abruptly.

 

The effect of the discontinuity is to disorient the viewer and draw attention to the artificial nature of film. Some claim that Godard was forced by the producer to make drastic cuts to the film, so he cut it haphazardly out of spite, accidentally creating one of the most influential films of the French New Wave.

 

Since Godard, filmmakers have used jump cuts in countless creative ways. These cuts can work with dramatic or comedic effect to show the passage of time as a character changes positions in a single shot. They can use a single camera position to show a character covering a great distance without making the audience watch every step. Jump cuts can also portray the point of view of an intoxicated or disoriented character without resorting to special effects. 

 

What is a montage?

A montage is a series of separate images, moving or still, that are edited together to create a continuous sequence. Montages enable filmmakers to communicate a large amount of information to an audience over a shorter span of time by juxtaposing different shots, compressing time through editing, or intertwining multiple storylines of a narrative.

The word “montage” derives from French — meaning “assembly” or “editing.”

Common Film Techniques Used in Montages:

Music

Quick cuts

Voiceover narration

Minimal or no dialogue

Repeated camera movements

What is a montage used for? It may depend on the genre of the film. Other times it may depend on what information is being communicated to the audience. 

 

Film Appreciation

 

Angle

If a shot is defined as ‘camera distance’ then an angle can be done so as ‘camera position’. It is like placing a light in a position to illuminate an object. There are five basic angles. They are: i) Over –head angle   ii) High angle  iii) eye-level angle  iv) Low angle  v) Oblique angle (which is also known as “Dutch-tilt”)

An angel is identified by the position from which the viewer sees the object. For example, a Low Angle is like using foot-lights to light the object. The object may appear larger, domineering, worshiped or even menacing. A low angle may be used to present Christ-on-cross or even the blade of guillotine coming down.

An Eye-Level angle, like a mid-shot, creates the illusion of reality. The audience of Yasijuro Ozu’s ‘The Tokoyo Story’ (1953) experienced a great sense of watching the social drama of changing Japanese domestic values and personal relationships. The magic of Ozu lied in the fact that he had used static shots from a camera raised just 3 or 4 feet above the ground. So the audience had the eye-level view of the characters crouched in the traditional Japanese style of sitting. This is the uniqueness  of mid-shot at eye-level angle.

A High Angle diminishes the object. But a good maker always breaks the cults and improvises upon it. Remember the High Angle used by Selvaragavan  in ‘Pudhupettai’ for the opening song filmed in a slum back-drop. The character seen from High Angle seems to challenge and deify the audience seated in the boxes.

An Over-head / Top-angle is the most philosophical of all visual. It gives one a cosmic sense. In Oliver Stone’s Alexander an Extreme-Long over-head filming of the battle ground with the forces ready to strike, and the camera swooping down breath-takingly to survey the rank and file, closely but rapidly, is almost suggestive of the ‘Vulture Death’ souring over humanity.

Lighting

As shot and angles suggest the distance and position, lighting sets the mood of the visual as colourisation does. There are three basic types of lighting: High key, Low key and High-contrast.

High key or bright lighting is used for comedy. Low key or dim lighting is used for tragedy. The colour format and the key lighting scheme have been apparently inspired by works such as Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather.

A high contrast lighting scheme is used for mysteries, ghosts/suspense thrillers. Alfred Hitchcock used it in an unsurpassable manner for the conversation between Norman Bates and Marianne in Psycho

Prominent and Subsidiary

For a classic film-maker subsidiaries are not there in a frame merely to create an atmosphere or establish the background. He attributes equal importance to the prominent and the subsidiary. The subsidiaries in a frame contribute to the prominent. For example, in Sanjay Leela Bansali’s Black (Hindi) when Amitab Bacchan the eccentric genius in teaching the special children is introduced, there is the poem of Rober Frost’s Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening” in the background written on a blackboard as a subsidiary. It precisely talks about the adventurous character of the central character present in the frame. The verse as the Subsidiary intensifies the concept of light, knowledge and teaching defined succinctly

Barriers in Communication

 

Barriers in Communication

Communicating is straightforward. What makes it complex difficult, and frustrating are the barriers we put in the way. The top barriers are,

Physical barriers

Physical barriers in an organization includes large working areas that are physically separated from others. Other distractions that could cause a physical barrier in an organization are environment, background noise.

Perceptual barriers

The problem with communication with others is that we all see the world differently. If we did not, we would have no need to communicate: something like extrasensory perception would take its place.

Emotional barriers

One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. Your emotions could be a barrier to communication if you are engrossed in your emotions for some reason. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. A few of the emotional interferences include hostility, anger, resentfulness and fear.

Cultural barriers

When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behavior patterns of the group. These are the behaviors that the group accept as signs of belonging. The group rewards such behavior through acts of recognition, approval and inclusion.

Language barriers

When a person uses inappropriate words while conversing or writing it could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and a receiver. Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzzwords and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global marketplace the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.

Gender barriers

There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. A man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, features of left-brain thinking, whereas a woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, features of thinking by both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men each day.

Lack of subject knowledge

 If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he may not be able to convey his message clearly. The receiver could misunderstand his message, and this could lead to a barrier to effective communication.

Stress

One of the major communication barriers faced by employees in most of the organization is stress. When a person is under immense stress, he may find it difficult to understand the message, leading to communication distortion. At the time of stress, our psychological frame of mind depends on our beliefs, experiences, goals and values. Thus, we fail to realize the essence of communication

 

Components of communication

 

Components of communication

Communication is an experience between speaker and listener. If you want your message to be as clear as possible when delivered , each of these components  need to be taken into consideration

i.                    Context

Context is a broad field that includes country, culture, organization and external and internal stimuli. Every message,  whether oral or written begins with content.

 

ii.                  The message

The message may be in the form of order, opinion, advice, suggestion, instruction, question answer material. It is necessary and important that idea or message received be identical to the idea or message sent. It is possible only when both communicators sender and receiver are skillful in communication and its language.

 

iii.                 The Speaker/ Sender/ Encoder

   Sender is the person who communicates the idea, information, material, etc. He acts in the capacity of speaker, writer or encoder. The speaker also conveys a message with tone of voice, appearance and gestures. The speaker may dress in a certain way to project a specific image, may smile to project friendliness, may raise his or her voice to gain attention.

iv.                Medium

Medium of communication includes letters, reports, fax, cables, telephones, charts, pictures or any other mechanical device. Medium may also be a person as a postman.

v.                  The Audience / Receiver / Decoder

The receiver is the decoder who receives, decodes or interprets the message. The same message, delivered by the same speaker, will not necessarily be received the same way by different audiences. The audience background attitudes and beliefs affect the message they hear.

If you want your message to be as clear as possible when delivered, each of these components need to be taken into consideration