Plato

 

Plato

His Age and Works

Plato date of birth is generally put down at 427 B.C and died in 348 B.C. He was the most celebrated disciple of Socrates. Plato began his career as a poet and playwright. But after his association with Socrates, he destroyed his poems and plays and devoted himself entirely to philosophical cogitations. After the assassination of Socrates, he founded an Academy in 387 B.C and taught his pupils philosophy, natural sciences, mathematics, practical legislation and jurisprudence. His important works are The Dialogues, Ion, Lysis, Georgics and Republic.

His theory of art

Plato holds that ideas exist as archetypes or originals in heaven. In Republic, Plato gives the example of a carpenter making a table. The ideal table exists as an archetype only in heaven. The carpenter’s table is an imitation of the ideal, flawless, perfect table which exists only in heaven. The poet who describes a table is imitating the carpenter’s table which is itself an imitation of the heavenly table. The poet’s description is an imitation of an imitation and hence is twice removed from reality. The poet has certain other serious limitations. The third rate poet has no serious purpose. His aim is to popularizes himself or to make money.

His attack on poetry

Plato asserts that the poet speaks the divine myth. Poetry is not a craft, which can be practiced by all and sundry. It is the effect of inspiration and the divine speaks through the poet. It cannot be recalled in its original fervor. Such a tool is not dependable, according Plato, reason, which opposed to passion is reliable. Poetry makes the reader feel rather than think. It makes readers adore beauty. They become excessively aesthetic. They lose their capacity for action. Poets speak ‘lies’ about gods. Such a deflation of gods contributes to the spread of atheism and impiety, so Plato banishes poetry from his Academy

His attack on drama

Plato’s attack on drama is as well-known as his attack on poetry. Plato holds that the dramatist has to pander to the low tastes of the spectators. Towards this end, he introduces ribald jokes, low buffoonery etc., in comedies and wars and lamentations in tragedies. Plato’s comments on the effects of bad drama on actors and spectators are quite pertinent. Actors who impersonate wicked characters become wicked themselves. A villain in a drama is likely to become a villain in real life. Exposure to wicked characters may corrupt the audience also. The converse is also true. Portrayal of a noble character will ennoble the actor as well as the audience.

Plato’s contribution to the critical art, thus is considerable. Scattered in fragments though it might be, all together read like a systematic treatise on the art of writing.

 

Communication and its types

 

 

Communication

Communication is the articulation of sending a message through different media, whether it is verbal or nonverbal. Communication of information, messages, opinions, speech and thoughts can be done via different forms of modern communication media like, e-mail, telephone and mobile. Some of the basic ways of communication are by speaking, singing, sign language, body language, touch and eye contact. These basic ways of communication are used to transfer information from one entity to the other. There are many different types of communication. They can be classified into four types. Verbal Communication, Nonverbal Communication, Formal Communication, Informal Communication.

Verbal Communication

i) Oral Communication

ii) Written Communication

Oral communication is information spoken by mouth. Some of the examples of oral communication are face-to-face communication, telephonic communication, public address system, audio and visual media, lectures, conferences – interchange of views, meetings, cultural affairs. Oral communication is a unique and learned rhetorical skill that requires you to understand what you say and how you say it. The various forms of oral communication include monologue, soliloquy, short conversation and long conversation

Monologue

Monologue is a speech made by one person on his thoughts to an audience or character. The listener does not respond. There are two types of monologues. They are Exterior monologue and Interior monologue

Soliloquy

It is a form of monologue. The soliloquy reveals his inner thoughts and feelings in supposed self-communion or in a consciously direct address.

Dialogue

It is a formal exchange of ideas between two persons. It is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities.

Short conversation

It is a short, informal spoken exchange between two persons. It is used when the interaction is with elders and respectable personalities.

Long conversation

It happens in both formal and informal situations. It is an exchange of facts and ideas at random.

Written Communication

Written communication is by means of written symbols. Some examples are orders, instructions, letters, memos, reports, policy manuals, information bulletin, complaint etc.

ii) Nonverbal Communication

it is the process of communicating through sending receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or posture: facial expression and eye contact.

iii) Formal communication

Here, communication takes place through the formal channels of the organization structure along the lines of authority established by the management. Such communications are generally in writing and may take any of the forms; policy manuals, memoranda and official meetings.

iv) Informal communication

Communication arising out of all those channels of communication that fall outside the formal channels is known as informal communication

Communication is fruitful only if the messages sent by the receiver. If any kind of disturbance blocks any step of communication, the message will be destroyed.

The Hero as Poet - Thomas Carlyle

 

The Hero as Poet   - Thomas Carlyle

Thomas Carlyle was born in 1795 and died in 1881. His genius matured and came to full flowering on the very threshold of the Victorian era. His writings were influenced considerably by the social, economic, cultural, scientific, technological and religious changes which characterize the era. ‘The Hero as a Poet’ is the third lecture in Carlyle’s series of six lectures published in book form as Heroes and Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History’. The lecture is divisible into three well defined parts: in the first part he considers briefly the history of the heroic ideal, and the essentials of a hero, and in part second and third he examines the heroic qualities of Dante and Shakespeare whom he holds out as model hero-poets.

Part I

He begins by pointing out that in the past a hero was treated as a God or a prophet i.e., either as one having the qualities of a God or as one speaking with the voice of God. However, such fallacies are not possible in the modern age. Science does not permit us to believe that a man can be a God or a prophet. In the modern age, a hero appears in the less ambitious character of a poet. A poet is a heroic figure belonging to all ages. He is a heroic character who does not grow old or outdated.

Hero, poet and prophet, philosopher and thinker are different names for great men who differ from each other not in their capacities but according to their different environment. In the opinion of Carlyle, it is differences of age and environment which are of the utmost importance. All heroes whether we call them prophets or poets are essentially Great Men i.e., men of sympathetic hearts and penetrating vision. They all have the seeing  eye and the understanding heart. That is why in some old languages they are both called ‘Vates’.

A vein of poetry exists in all persons; all grow poetic under the stress of powerful passion. When this vein of poetry is more developed in a man than in his neighbours, the man is called a poet. One who rises above the general level of poets is called a Universal poet. However, it should be remembered that most poets are soon forgotten, and the greatest, not even Shakespeare, will be remembered for ever.

Part II

 Dante, an Italian  poet, writer and philosopher. His Divine Comedy, is widely considered as one of the most important poems of the Middle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language. He was instrumental in establishing the literature of Italy. He is described as the "father" of the Italian language. His apprehension of the reality was thorough, and this reality is presented in the three parts of the poem, viz. Inferno, Purgatorio, and ‘Paradiso’. Reality for Dante was not the world in which he lived. He found that the world was full of falsehood as folly, hypocrisy and meanness, and imposters prospered, and honest and sincere people died of starvation. Consequently his eyes were turned heaven-wards where he discovered an eternal truth, a spiritual reality, which promised peace and happiness to the suffering human soul. ‘The Divine Comedy’ is an embodiment of Dante’s vision of spiritual reality. The sinners and the wicked who prosper in life, are thrown in eternal hell. Evil cannot escape punishment, however, great, gaudy, or pompous it may appear to us on the earth. Yet, God gives to the sinners a chance of making amends and improving themselves by sincere penitence. Purgatory is an embodiment of this aspect of God’s mercy. The soul is purged and hallowed by suffering, and ascends to the region of the blessed i.e., Paradise.

Part III

Shakespeare is endowed with a unique intensity of vision. His vision is so keen that it penetrates even to the farthest depth of life. From its penetrating and keen vision no aspect of life remains hidden. ‘Such a calmness of depth; placid, joyous, strength; all things imaged in that great soul of his, so true and clear, as in a tranquil unfathomable sea’. The genius of Shakespeare is shown in his delineation of character. His characterization shows complete command over human psychology. His great soul takes in all kinds of men and objects, a Falstaff, an Othello, a Juliet, a Coriolanus, and sets them all forth us in their rounded perception and completeness. He has a universal sympathy for all and sundry. He portrays the character of people as they really are, without condemning their failings and shortcomings or extolling their virtues. In no other writer do we find such a great catholicity and tolerance as in Shakespeare.

Such are the Carlyle’s views on the heroism of poets. Dante and Shakespeare are used to illustrate his views. Some of his remarks are certainly original and penetrating, and come to us as a revelation, a pleasant surprise. We may not agree with him; still we cannot help admiring him.

 

TENSES

                                               TENSES

Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1) Present Tense

(2) Past Tense

(3) Future Tense

They are further divided into:

(1) Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work

done on daily basis.

Example – She writes a letter.

Example – She does not write a letter.

Example – Does she write a letter?

Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2) Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the time

of speaking.

Example – she is writing a letter.

Example – She is not writing a letter.

Example – Is she writing a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

=+

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a letter?

(3) Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has

just finished.

Example- She has written a letter.

Example – She has not written a letter.

Example- Has she written a letter?

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(4) Present Perfect Continuous– This tense shows the action which started in

the past and is still continuing.

Example – She has been writing a letter.

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object

Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy

gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Simple Past

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

Simple Past

Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of

time. Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.

Used for past habits.

Eg. I played football when I was a child.

Rule: Subject + V2

Eg She wrote a letter

1. Assertive Sentences – Subject + V2 + Object + (.)

She wrote a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)

She didn’t.write a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

e.g. I was driving a car.

Rule: was/were + ing

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She was writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)

She was not writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she not writing a letter?

Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a

long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the

action that took place earlier.

e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)

She had written a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not + Object + (.)

She had not written a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued

up to some time in past.

e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)

She had been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She had not been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she not been writing a letter?

FUTURE TENSE

Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of

speaking or writing is called as future tense.

For e.g- She will write a letter.

Simple Future

This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after

saying or in future

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)

In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping verb ‘Will’

is used with all others. When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or

emphasize something, use of 'will/shall' is reversed. ‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’

and 'shall' is used with others.

Simple Future

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous

In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and

normally ‘Will’ is used with all.

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will write a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will not write a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)

Will she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)

Will she not write a letter?

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.

e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.

In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to

be continued till sometime in future.

We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or

around a time in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will be writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will not be writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she be writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she not be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be

completed by a certain time in future.

We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time

in the future.

e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will have written a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will not have written a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she have written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she not have written a letter?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will

continue for some time in future.

If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous tense.

Without continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense.

Continued time reference only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and

Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be

in progress before another time or event in the future.

e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.

It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.

e.g. They will be staying for a week’s

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in

progress before another time or event in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will have been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+ (.)

She will not have been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she have been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she not have been writing a letter?

The Veins of Wealth - John Ruskin

 

The Veins of Wealth     - John Ruskin

 

     The title ‘The Veins of Wealth’ is appropriate and suitable. It is suggestive too.  Ruskin suggests that the circulation of wealth in the body –politics, resembles that of the blood in the human body. Veins are the blood vessels carrying blood to the heart. Ruskin compares human beings to veins carrying life-giving wealth to the heart of the state.

    Ruskin brings out a clear-cut distinction between Political Economy and Mercantile Economy. Political Economy consists simply of the production, preservation and distribution, at fittest time and place, of or useful pleasurable things. In brief, it implies the economy of national welfare. Mercantile Economy, on the other hand, signifies the accumulation, in the hands of individuals, of legal or moral claim upon or power over the labour of others. It implies poverty or debt on one side and riches or right on the other. Naturally, it does not add to the well-being of the State in which it exists.

    The orthodox political economist assumes that inequalities are necessarily advantageous though established and directed unjustly. Ruskin felt that inequalities of wealth unjustly established have injured the nation in which they exist. On the other hand, if inequalities of wealth are justly established, they benefit the nation in the course of their establishment.

      According to Ruskin, the real value of wealth depends on justice and honest way by which it is accumulated. Any given accumulation of commercial wealth may be indicative, on the one hand, of faithful industries, progressive energies and productive ingenuities or on the other, it may be indicative of moral luxury, merciless tyranny, dangerous tricks.

     It is wrong to presume that wealth is all powerful and that human-beings are insignificant. In truth, the persons themselves are wealth. The price of gold which people possess are ornamental things and hence not so real as the reality itself. The wealth of a nation is in its good men and women and in nothing else but to produce healthy, happy-hearted human beings. The best national manufactures are souls of a good quality.

 

THE ROOTS OF HONOUR - JOHN RUSKIN

 

THE ROOTS OF HONOUR      -  JOHN RUSKIN

     John Ruskin was one of the greatest thinkers and writers of the Victorian age. He produced works of lasting value on a variety of subjects such as art, music, education and literature. Ruskin’s works on art, social and political economy, literature and education are worthy of great consideration. Ruskin’s career as a social critic and reformer began formally in 1860 with the publication of his ‘Unto This Last’. The work ‘Unto This Last’ consists of four essays : i) The Roots of Honour  ii) The Veins of Wealth  iii) Qui Judicates  Terram iv) Ad Valorem. In these essays, Ruskin deals with the problem of wages, the relation of the employers and the labourers. He was a real Messiah of the working classes.

     In this essay ‘The Roots of Honour’ Ruskin wants to say that orthodox political economy ignores social affections, though these are essential and not accidental qualities. The political economy of writers like Mill, Malthus and Ricardo is full of delusions; these economists have said that man is motivated by self-interest only. The political economy which reduces man to covetuous self-interest appears to Ruskin a theory based on the negation of Soul.  He is perfectly right when he remarks that honour is the outcome of self-sacrifice. Without sacrifice no honour can be achieved. Merchants are fanned by self-interest and hence they ignore social affection. To them, monetary gain is the goal of life and thus they consider social affections as accidental and inconstant.

     The second point touched by the author is about the relationship between master and servant, Without co-operation between the master and his servants, no progress can be made. In an ideal society, interests of both the classes should be safeguarded. For example, the master should not pay his worker so low that he starves and remains sickly. The worker should not demand high wages when his master is economically unsound.

Ruskin recommends fixed wages for the labour class. When other types of workers, such as engineers, doctors and teachers have fixed wages, why should the workers remains unfixed? Fixed wages have merits. It would not throw the worker out of employment in competition.

Then Ruskin says that merchants must also learn their duty like the soldiers. Their duty is to produce the purest things and sell them at the cheapest rates. They should also see that men employed under them get their due wages. In a commercial crisis, they should behave like the captain of the ship. In other words, they should be rooted in honour like professional men.

Nevertheless, the essay heralds a prophetic note. The prophesies made by Ruskin have come to be true. His suggestions have a modern appeal.

The Explosion - Philip Larkin

 

The Explosion      - Philip Larkin

Philip Larkin (1922-1985) was one of the most important poets of the late 20^th Century. He wrote the poem The Explosion, in 1970. It is the final poem in his 1974 collection, “High Windows”. After watching a television programme, in late 1969, Larkin got inspiration to the write about the British mining industry and the dangers that miners faced. The speaker of the poem is an observer and commentator on the crucial event of the poem, an explosion at a mine. It is a short poem of twenty-five lines.

The first part of the poem begins with a description of ordinary men going out to do a day’s work down the mine. There is no hint of apprehension on their part. The poet describes how “On the day of the explosion/ Shadows pointed towards the pithead.” These “shadows” are an omen of the terrible event that is to follow.

The actions of the men are all in stark contrast to their work environment, the sun is shining, they are smoking. One among them is more adventurous and active as he hunts some rabbits. The rabbits escape, but he finds a nest with a lark’s eggs in it. He does not destroy or harm this nest but shows it to the others and returns them to their place in the grass. , and even the reference to larks is significant given that larks go straight up and the men will soon go straight down in a cage to start work in the darkness of the mine.

It is significant that poet Philip Larkin does not describe the actual explosion but rather its effects on the outer world. With the tremor, cows stop chewing and the sun is “dimmed.” Readers do not see its effect on the miners who are dying under the earth. That horror and suffering is hidden from view.

In the second part of the poem the focus is changed. Now it is the wives who are central. It is said that the poem is based on a real event and that the wives of the dead miners had visions of their men at the moment of the explosion. Larkin uses this knowledge to transform what would be a sad and meaningless accident into an occasion of transformation and grace. In the religious imaginations of the wives the men are seen for a second as transformed into gold, metal of purity and endurance. In this new changed appearance they will live in the memories of their wives. The poem ends with the image of the unbroken eggs. The eggs are also transformed; now they may represent the hope of resurrection or the preciousness of memory or the strength of the bonds of love.

In the face of death we have a choice, either to accept it as the slide into nothingness or we may find in it the door to renewal. In this poem Larkin suggests us the renewal vision that flashed into the shocked serious hearts of the miners wives.