The Tudor Navy and Spanish Armada

 

The Tudor Navy and Spanish Armada

Elizabeth’s conquest of the Spanish Armada is one of her important achievements. It made the supremacy of England’s navy.

Cause of the naval battle

Queen Elizabeth remained a virgin all her life. She gave false promises of marriage to a large number of men in order to keep them subordinate to herself. It was her trick in the political game. Philip II, the king of Spain, was one of the men. He was deeply disappointed when she abandoned him. It created a friction between the two countries.

Spain was monarch of the sea for long. Spanish traders were troubled by English pirates.These  pirates were called sea-dogs. Philip’s galleon had colonized Portugal, Southern and Central America, and Indies. The Spanish galleons looted these countries and brought their gold and silver to Spain.

The Tudor monarchs wanted to have a share in the growing maritime trade. Henry VIII supported John Calbot who discovered Labrador. A team of private merchants from England established trade contacts with South America. A new English company called ‘The Company of Merchant Adventures’ was formed. Sebestian Calbot, son of John Calbot was the Chief of the company. It had trade with Baltic and Scandinavian markets.

John Hawkins, was a famous navigator, who brought negroes in West Africa and sold them at a huge profit to the Spaniards in America to work in their mines. Philip disliked the intrusion of Hawkins and tried to capture him. Hawkins escaped and returned to England. In the same way Fancis Drake and Martin Frobisher also looted the Spaniards. Queen Elizabeth supported Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher and gave them jobs in her navy.

Philip sponsored Mary, Queen of Scots. He planned to throw out Elizabeth and make Mary the queen of England. Her execution and the suppression of the Catholics in England angered Philip. Drake sailed into the harbor of Cadiz and sank a Spanish ship, so Philip declared an open war against England.

The Spanish fleet called the Armada anchored in the shape of the crescent moon. It was captained by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. It consisted of one hundred and thirty ships. The horns of the crescent were seven miles long. The Spanish ships were huge merchant ships. They were unfit for war. The English fleet was captained by Lord Howard of Effingham and assisted by Hawkins, Drake and Frobisher.

The Spanish ships were anchored off Calais. At night the English admiral set fire to some old ships of his and let the wind carry them. The ships were loaded with inflammable material. On seeing this moving inferno, the Spanish sailors panicked. They sailed in confusion. The English sailors pursued them and destroyed most of them. This was a decisive victory for England.

The victory of England was greeted by the Protestants both in England and abroad. They considered this as God’s punishment for Philip’s action. Having gained naval supremacy, England was able to establish many colonies unhindered by rivals. After this, Elizabeth started to concentrate on internal problems and work for the progress of England.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

 

 

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

The monasteries were centres of learning many centuries ago. The monks who lived there were devoted to the cause of education. It functioned as hospitals. The poor and orphaned were taken care of there. But in course of time the monasteries degenerated. Martin Luther, a German monk objected the commercialization of the church. All the protesters against the corrupt Roman church stood behind Luther. The anger of the people against the monasteries reached the boiling point in the age of Henry VIII. In England the clash was due to personal reasons, so the king decided to dissolve the monasteries. The monks were the supporters of the Pope. The closing down of the monasteries and disbanding of the unfaithful monks was Henry’s indirect revenge on the Pope. Henry’s treasury was empty, because of his several wars with France and other neighbouring countries. To satisfy the demands, he seized the wealth of the monasteries.

The Act 1536 empowered the king to dissolve 276 small monasteries at first. The Duke of Suffolk led the military force to destruct a monastery in Lincolnshire. The Pilgrimage of Grace in Yorkshire was popular. In 1536, it was destructed. A lawyer called Robert Aske joined with the rebellious monks and captured York. Seeing the strength, the king offered a general pardon of the rebels. But the King reacted ferociously in 1539. He ordered the soldiers to kill the rebels. Following this, many abbeys were dissolved in 1539. The famous shrine of Becket at Canterbury was looted and its offerings confiscated in 1538

Effects of the Dissolution

The monastic income was one-third of the total income of England. The king and his greedy courtiers swallowed most of it. A new middle class arose. They bought monastic land at a cheap rate and remained loyal to the king. The original abbey buildings were ruthlessly destroyed. Most of the noblest monuments were lost. The libraries in many abbeys had rare manuscripts. They were all destroyed. Monks became jobless. The gentlemen helped by the monasteries were now abandoned. The destruction of the Sea-side abbeys left the nation unprotected.

Thus in many ways the dissolution of the monasteries caused an heavy loss to the nation. It was all due to the sloth and luxury of the monks.

THE REFORMATION

 

THE REFORMATION

Introduction

 The Reformation was a world- wide religious movement. It started in Germany and spread to other nations.

The Reformation in Germany

The Pope and other dignitaries of the church led luxurious lives. They did not show any interest in preaching or in promoting the welfare of congregation. As a result, people had dissatisfaction against the church. In the meantime, Pope Julius decided to construct a grand new Basilica by demolishing the old medieval church. The next Pope Leo X, was ready to pardon the sinners if they donated money towards the construction of St.Peter’s Basilica. People who had the superstitious belief were ready to pay money to the Pope to escape from their sins. A German monk by name Martin Luther objected to the commercialization of the church. He prepared ninety-five objections against the practice of church. All the protesters against the corrupt Roman Church stood behind Luther. Thus was born the Protestant religion.

The Reformation in England

The German Reformation was due to Martin Luther’s doctrinal clash with the Pope, whereas in England the clash was purely due to personal reasons. In the beginning the English King Henry VIII was a strong supporter of Pope Leo X. He showed his loyalty to the Pope by banning Luther’s controversial works in England. He also published his ‘Assertion of the Seven Sacraments’ rebutting Luther’s charges point by point. The Pope was pleased of the King’s support and bestowed the title Defender of the Faith on Henry.

     The harmonious relationship between Henry with Rome was broken when the King wanted to divorce his wife Catherine of Rome and marry Anne Boleyn. The Pope did not grant permission to the proposal, so the king decided to cut down his relationship with the Pope. He convened a Parliament which was favourable to him. It came to be called the Reformation Parliament. He passed a series of Acts which curtailed the powers of the Pope. By passing the Act of Supremacy in 1534, Henry became the supreme head of the Church in England. Sir Thomash More and Bishop Fisher adamantly refused to accept the supremacy of Henry. They were beheaded and their heads were displayed on London Bridge to threaten all dissenters into submission. This incident turned people against Henry

Dissolution of monasteries

Henry dissolved all the monasteries and seized their wealth. To show himself as a supporter of Catholic he passed some articles in favour of Catholics.

Reformation during Edward VI regime

The next king Edward VI followed Henry’s footprint. He dissolved the chantries also. In 1549, the prayer book prepared by Archbishop Cranmer was prescribed. The prayer book contained nothing new.

Reformation during Mary Tudor regime

She abolished the English Prayer book enforced by Edward VI. She tried to wipe out Protestantism by burning its supporters. Among three hundred people who were burnt were John Roger, Cranmer and the preacher Latimer. These ruthless measures earned her the nick name ‘Bloody Mary’. She was succeeded by Elizabeth

Reformation during Elizabeth regime

Elizabeth took measures to correct the mistakes committed by Henry VIII and Mary. At the same time she was particular about maintaining the sovereignty of England. Later, the Roman church was stripped of its powers gradually by successive rulers. Through her mild measures Queen Elizabeth established the superiority of the Church of England to the Roman Church. She did not beheaded or burn anybody, so she was adored by the people.

The Renaissance

 

The Renaissance

Introduction

The period between the tenth century and the fifteenth centuries is known as the Medieval age or the Middle Ages. It is also called as the Dark Age because it was unenlightened both intellectually and spiritually. Constantinople, the capital of the eastern Roman empire, was captured by the Truks in 1453. Fearing ill-treatment, Greek and Latin scholars fled from Constantinople. They took shelter in Italy, Germany, France and other European countries. They carried Latin and Greek classics and taught them wherever they settled. This was the origin of the Renaissance

Renaissance and  literature

Three great Italian writers Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio created an interest for learning Latin. Their works came to be read far and wide. Shakespeare derived the sonnet form from Petrarch. The Italian writers spread the ideal of humanism. Man was their central concern. Machiavelli was another great Italian writer. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey got a universal appeal.

Renaissance and science

John Gutenberg of Germany invented the printing press in 1454. Before the invention, books were copied manually by the copyists in monasteries. The process consumed more time. After the invention, books were available at a cheap rate. It increased the readers number. The first Latin Bible was printed in Italy in 1455. In a short period presses were started all over Europe. Caxton introduced the printing press in England in 1476.

The mariner’s compass was another important invention. It helped mariners to reach far-off regions. Columbus discovered America in 1492. Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on the western coast of India accidentally in 1498. Magellan set out to explore the Pacific Ocean in 1519.

Copernicus disproved the Ptolemaic theory that the earth was the centre of the universe. Kepler proved that the earth and the other planets rotated round the sun in elliptical and not in circular paths. In 1609 Galileo invented a telescope with which he proved that the sun was turning on its axis. Many important discoveries were made in the field of medicine too.

 

Renaissance painting

Michael Angelo, Raphael Leonardo da Vinci and Titan were the most famous painters of renaissance. Michael Angelo paintings based on Biblical themes. He painted the picture of “The Last Judgement” in Sistine Chapel. Leonard de Vinci created the fresco of ‘The Last Supper’ on the walls in Milan. His another famous picture is Mona Lisa

Renaissance sculpture

Lorenzo Ghiberti and Michael Angelo were the great Renaissance sculptors. Michael Angelo was not only a painter but also a sculptor. He is known for statues of David and Moses. His statue of Virgin Mary holding the dead body of Christ on her lap is an immortal work.

Thus the renaissance made remarkable changes in many fields.

 

Editing

 

What is continuity editing in film?

Continuity editing is an editing system used to maintain consistency of both time and space in the film. Continuity editing helps ground audiences in the reality of the film while establishing a clear and structured narrative.

The goal of continuity editing is to make the mechanisms of filmmaking invisible as to help the audience dismiss disbelief more easily.

Continuity editing, also referred to as three-dimensional continuity, is the predominant editing style among commercial Hollywood films.

Techniques of continuity editing in film

Eye line

Eye trace

180 degree rule

Matching action

Continuity in film follows a few fundamental rules. Here are a few rules and techniques of continuity editing. While these rules are occasionally and intentionally broken in filmmaking, understanding these rules are important for every filmmaker.

CONTINUITY IN FILM TECHNIQUES

Eyeline

The eyeline match is one of the most fundamental tools in continuity editing. It aims to fulfill the expectation of an audience to see what a character is looking at when they are looking off screen.

When the scene is a dialogue between multiple people, one character often looks screen left while the other character looks screen right to maintain the consistency that these characters are looking at each other. This is fundamental when shooting over the shoulder, shot reverse shot scenes.

 

The importance of eye line match occurs when sequential shots may not have been shot chronologically. In fact, the actors may have been on set at different times. Maintaining the eyeline match creates the illusion that they are both present in the same room at the same time in the film.

Eyeline match does not solely pertain to left or right, but can be more precise such as matching the height of another character or object vertically. If there are a group of characters, like in a dinner scene, it is important to be precise with the eye lines so that the audience will understand who each character is looking at

180-degree rule

If you have taken a class on editing or cinematography, one of the first rules you will learn about is the 180-degree rule. The 180-degree rule is meant to orient the audience and help them understand where characters are in relation to each other and their environment.

To do this, you filmmakers create an imaginary line between two subjects in a scene. Then they keep every camera setup on the same side of this line, within the same 180 degrees.

 

 The 180-degree rule is important when cutting between characters in the same space. But what happens when you want to cut to the same character from a different angle in the same space? This is where the 30-degree rule comes into play.

30-degree rule

Sometimes filmmakers cut from one shot of a character to a different shot of the same character either to change the shot angle or cut to different shot sizes. To avoid jarring discontinuity editing or a jump cut the two different shots must be taken from at least 30-degrees apart.

The 30-degree rule is incredibly important when shooting with multiple cameras which many cinematographers often do. It is an important rule that allows filmmakers to change the perspective of the camera while maintaining the consistency and logic of the scene.

Some filmmakers purposely break the 30-degree rule and use a jump cut and discontinuity editing. We’ll touch on why filmmakers do that in a bit.

WHAT IS A MATCH ON ACTION CUT?

Matching action

Editing to match the action of characters is one of if not the most basic tool to continuity editing. What is a match on action cut? It is a staple to what some editors refer to as invisible editing. Matching action simply aims to cut on the same frame of a character’s action between two shots. In this action scene from Mad Max: Fury Road, pay attention to every cut and notice how many cut on the action of a character to make the scene smooth in consistent shot to shot.

This will maintain the continuity of motion between two takes, otherwise known as invisible editing. Cutting on action is just one example of a match cut — some match cut techniques are designed to maintain continuity while others are meant to disrupt that flow. To better understand this technique, check out the video tutorial below.

Cutting on action is important. Looking for small actions to cut on like a character standing up or picking up an object will help when cutting to continuity.

CONTINUITY OF MOTION

Eye trace

All of the rules of continuity editing above help maintain the illusion of a scene’s time and space. Eye trace, on the other hand, is more of a storytelling editing technique to keep in mind when cutting to continuity.

Eye trace is a technique and part of Walter Murch's Rule of Six that allows an editor and director to direct the audience's eyes and attention toward a specific detail on screen through a cut. For example, if the first shot has a subject in the bottom left of the screen, the next shot may have an important plot detail in the same position to ensure the audience will see it. 

The eye trace is an editing technique that will immediately elevate the level of your editing. While it isn’t necessarily a rule of continuity editing, it is an important technique to keep in mind. It will help you be a more effective editor and storyteller in the long run.

 

What is a jump cut?

In filmmaking, a jump cut is an edit to a single, sequential shot that makes the action appear to leap forward in time. After the cut, the subject may appear in a different position or attitude, or the camera position may be slightly different. This cut style is a great departure from the standard conventions of continuity editing, which dictate that the camera angle should change by at least 30 degrees from one clip to the next.

 

A brief history of the jump cut.

In the early 1900s, filmmaker Georges Méliès discovered the jump cut and used it to portray magic tricks. With cuts that appeared seamless, Méliès made characters magically disappear and reappear.

 

Jump to 1959 and Jean-Luc Godard’s Breathless. Godard broke the rules with obvious jump cuts in the same sequence. During a driving scene, the camera angle remains the same, over the shoulder of the character Patricia in the passenger seat, but the scenery in the background changes abruptly.

 

The effect of the discontinuity is to disorient the viewer and draw attention to the artificial nature of film. Some claim that Godard was forced by the producer to make drastic cuts to the film, so he cut it haphazardly out of spite, accidentally creating one of the most influential films of the French New Wave.

 

Since Godard, filmmakers have used jump cuts in countless creative ways. These cuts can work with dramatic or comedic effect to show the passage of time as a character changes positions in a single shot. They can use a single camera position to show a character covering a great distance without making the audience watch every step. Jump cuts can also portray the point of view of an intoxicated or disoriented character without resorting to special effects. 

 

What is a montage?

A montage is a series of separate images, moving or still, that are edited together to create a continuous sequence. Montages enable filmmakers to communicate a large amount of information to an audience over a shorter span of time by juxtaposing different shots, compressing time through editing, or intertwining multiple storylines of a narrative.

The word “montage” derives from French — meaning “assembly” or “editing.”

Common Film Techniques Used in Montages:

Music

Quick cuts

Voiceover narration

Minimal or no dialogue

Repeated camera movements

What is a montage used for? It may depend on the genre of the film. Other times it may depend on what information is being communicated to the audience. 

 

Film Appreciation

 

Angle

If a shot is defined as ‘camera distance’ then an angle can be done so as ‘camera position’. It is like placing a light in a position to illuminate an object. There are five basic angles. They are: i) Over –head angle   ii) High angle  iii) eye-level angle  iv) Low angle  v) Oblique angle (which is also known as “Dutch-tilt”)

An angel is identified by the position from which the viewer sees the object. For example, a Low Angle is like using foot-lights to light the object. The object may appear larger, domineering, worshiped or even menacing. A low angle may be used to present Christ-on-cross or even the blade of guillotine coming down.

An Eye-Level angle, like a mid-shot, creates the illusion of reality. The audience of Yasijuro Ozu’s ‘The Tokoyo Story’ (1953) experienced a great sense of watching the social drama of changing Japanese domestic values and personal relationships. The magic of Ozu lied in the fact that he had used static shots from a camera raised just 3 or 4 feet above the ground. So the audience had the eye-level view of the characters crouched in the traditional Japanese style of sitting. This is the uniqueness  of mid-shot at eye-level angle.

A High Angle diminishes the object. But a good maker always breaks the cults and improvises upon it. Remember the High Angle used by Selvaragavan  in ‘Pudhupettai’ for the opening song filmed in a slum back-drop. The character seen from High Angle seems to challenge and deify the audience seated in the boxes.

An Over-head / Top-angle is the most philosophical of all visual. It gives one a cosmic sense. In Oliver Stone’s Alexander an Extreme-Long over-head filming of the battle ground with the forces ready to strike, and the camera swooping down breath-takingly to survey the rank and file, closely but rapidly, is almost suggestive of the ‘Vulture Death’ souring over humanity.

Lighting

As shot and angles suggest the distance and position, lighting sets the mood of the visual as colourisation does. There are three basic types of lighting: High key, Low key and High-contrast.

High key or bright lighting is used for comedy. Low key or dim lighting is used for tragedy. The colour format and the key lighting scheme have been apparently inspired by works such as Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather.

A high contrast lighting scheme is used for mysteries, ghosts/suspense thrillers. Alfred Hitchcock used it in an unsurpassable manner for the conversation between Norman Bates and Marianne in Psycho

Prominent and Subsidiary

For a classic film-maker subsidiaries are not there in a frame merely to create an atmosphere or establish the background. He attributes equal importance to the prominent and the subsidiary. The subsidiaries in a frame contribute to the prominent. For example, in Sanjay Leela Bansali’s Black (Hindi) when Amitab Bacchan the eccentric genius in teaching the special children is introduced, there is the poem of Rober Frost’s Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening” in the background written on a blackboard as a subsidiary. It precisely talks about the adventurous character of the central character present in the frame. The verse as the Subsidiary intensifies the concept of light, knowledge and teaching defined succinctly

Barriers in Communication

 

Barriers in Communication

Communicating is straightforward. What makes it complex difficult, and frustrating are the barriers we put in the way. The top barriers are,

Physical barriers

Physical barriers in an organization includes large working areas that are physically separated from others. Other distractions that could cause a physical barrier in an organization are environment, background noise.

Perceptual barriers

The problem with communication with others is that we all see the world differently. If we did not, we would have no need to communicate: something like extrasensory perception would take its place.

Emotional barriers

One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. Your emotions could be a barrier to communication if you are engrossed in your emotions for some reason. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. A few of the emotional interferences include hostility, anger, resentfulness and fear.

Cultural barriers

When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behavior patterns of the group. These are the behaviors that the group accept as signs of belonging. The group rewards such behavior through acts of recognition, approval and inclusion.

Language barriers

When a person uses inappropriate words while conversing or writing it could lead to misunderstanding between the sender and a receiver. Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzzwords and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global marketplace the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.

Gender barriers

There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. A man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, features of left-brain thinking, whereas a woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, features of thinking by both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men each day.

Lack of subject knowledge

 If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he may not be able to convey his message clearly. The receiver could misunderstand his message, and this could lead to a barrier to effective communication.

Stress

One of the major communication barriers faced by employees in most of the organization is stress. When a person is under immense stress, he may find it difficult to understand the message, leading to communication distortion. At the time of stress, our psychological frame of mind depends on our beliefs, experiences, goals and values. Thus, we fail to realize the essence of communication